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DP IB Biology: HL

Revision Notes

Home / IB / Biology: HL / DP / Revision Notes / 8. Metabolism, Cell Respiration & Photosynthesis (HL Only) / 8.3 Photosynthesis / 8.3.5 Chloroplast


8.3.5 Chloroplast


Chloroplast Structure & Function

Structure

  • Chloroplasts are the organelles in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs
  • These organelles are roughly 2 - 10 μm in diameter (they are larger than mitochondria)
  • Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double-membrane envelope
    • Each of the envelope membranes is a phospholipid bilayer
    • The outer membrane is permeable to a range of ions and small molecules
    • The inner membrane contains transport proteins that only allow certain molecules or ions to enter or leave the chloroplast
  • Chloroplasts are filled with a cytosol-like fluid known as the stroma
    • CO2, sugars, enzymes and other molecules are dissolved in the stroma
    • If the chloroplast has been photosynthesising there may be starch grains or lipid droplets in the stroma
  • A separate system of membranes is found in the stroma
  • This membrane system consists of a series of flattened fluid-filled sacs known as thylakoids
    • The thylakoid membranes contain pigments, enzymes and electron carriers
    • These thylakoids stack up to form structures known as grana (singular – granum)
    • Grana are connected by membranous channels called stroma lamellae, which ensure the stacks of sacs are connected but distanced from each other

Cell components_Chloroplast Chloroplast structure

  • The membrane system provides a large number of pigment molecules that ensure as much light as necessary is absorbed
  • The pigment molecules are arranged in light-harvesting clusters known as photosystems
    • In a photosystem, the different pigment molecules are arranged in funnel-like structures in the thylakoid membrane
    • Each pigment molecule passes energy down to the next pigment molecule in the cluster until it reaches the primary pigment reaction centre

Adaptations of chloroplasts to photosynthesis

  • Stroma:
    • The gel-like fluid contains enzymes that catalyse the reactions of the light-independent stage
    • The stroma surrounds the grana and membranes, making the transport of products from the light-dependent stage into the stroma rapid
  • Grana:
    • The granal stacks create a large surface area for the presence of many photosystems which allows for the maximum absorption of light
    • It also provides more membrane space for electron carriers and ATP synthase enzymes
  • DNA:
    • The chloroplast DNA contains genes that code for some of the proteins and enzymes used in photosynthesis
  • Ribosomes:
    • The presence of ribosomes allows for the translation of proteins coded by the chloroplast DNA
  • Inner membrane of chloroplast envelope:
    • The selective transport proteins present in the inner membrane control the flow of molecules between the stroma and cytosol (the cytoplasm of the plant cell)
  • Thylakoid space:
    • This is where a proton gradient develops (to generate ATP)
    • The space has a very small volume so a proton gradient can develop very quickly


  • 1. Cell Biology
    • 1.1 Cells: Theory
      • 1.1.1 Cell Theory
        • 1.1.2 Functions of Life
          • 1.1.3 Surface Area to Volume Ratio
            • 1.1.4 Cell Specialisation
              • 1.1.5 Stem Cells
                • 1.1.6 Skills: Cell Theory
                • 1.2 Cells: Origin & Ultrastructure
                  • 1.2.1 Origin of Cells
                    • 1.2.2 Endosymbiotic Theory
                      • 1.2.3 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
                        • 1.2.4 Eukaryotic Cell Structure
                          • 1.2.5 Exocrine Pancreatic & Palisade Mesophyll Cells
                            • 1.2.6 Comparison of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
                              • 1.2.7 Microscopes
                                • 1.2.8 Skills: Drawing Cells
                                  • 1.2.9 Skills: Cell Origin & Ultrastructure
                                  • 1.3 Cells: Membrane Structure & Transport
                                    • 1.3.1 Phospholipid Bilayer Properties
                                      • 1.3.2 Membrane Proteins
                                        • 1.3.3 History of Fluid Mosaic Model
                                          • 1.3.4 Membrane Transport
                                            • 1.3.5 Active Transport & Bulk Transport
                                              • 1.3.6 Skills: Membrane Structure & Transport
                                                • 1.3.7 Skills: Estimation of Osmolarity
                                                • 1.4 Cells: Division
                                                  • 1.4.1 Cell Cycle
                                                    • 1.4.2 Phases of Mitosis
                                                      • 1.4.3 Cancer
                                                        • 1.4.4 Skills: Cell Division
                                                      • 2. Molecular Biology
                                                        • 2.1 Metabolism & Water
                                                          • 2.1.1 Molecules
                                                            • 2.1.2 Metabolism
                                                              • 2.1.3 Hydrogen Bonds
                                                                • 2.1.4 Water
                                                                • 2.2 Carbohydrates & Lipids
                                                                  • 2.2.1 Carbohydrates
                                                                    • 2.2.2 Fatty Acids
                                                                      • 2.2.3 Lipids
                                                                        • 2.2.4 Skills: Visualising Carbohydrates
                                                                          • 2.2.5 Skills: Calculating BMI
                                                                          • 2.3 Proteins
                                                                            • 2.3.1 Proteins
                                                                              • 2.3.2 Protein Structure & Function
                                                                                • 2.3.3 The Variety of Proteins
                                                                                  • 2.3.4 Skills: Molecules
                                                                                  • 2.4 Enzymes
                                                                                    • 2.4.1 Enzymes
                                                                                      • 2.4.2 Immobilised Enzymes
                                                                                        • 2.4.3 Skills: Enzyme Experiments
                                                                                        • 2.5 Nucleic Acids: Structure & DNA Replication
                                                                                          • 2.5.1 DNA & RNA Structure
                                                                                            • 2.5.2 DNA Replication
                                                                                              • 2.5.3 Skills: DNA Replication
                                                                                              • 2.6 Transcription & Translation
                                                                                                • 2.6.1 Transcription
                                                                                                  • 2.6.2 Translation
                                                                                                    • 2.6.3 Biotechnology
                                                                                                      • 2.6.4 Skills: DNA, RNA & Protein Synthesis
                                                                                                        • 2.6.5 Skills: Interpreting Sequences
                                                                                                        • 2.7 Cellular Respiration
                                                                                                          • 2.7.1 Cellular Respiration
                                                                                                            • 2.7.2 Anaerobic Respiration
                                                                                                              • 2.7.3 Aerobic Respiration
                                                                                                                • 2.7.4 Skills: Respiration
                                                                                                                • 2.8 Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                  • 2.8.1 Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                    • 2.8.2 Photosynthesis Continued
                                                                                                                      • 2.8.3 Skills: Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                        • 2.8.4 Skills: Separating Photosynthetic Pigments
                                                                                                                      • 3. Genetics
                                                                                                                        • 3.1 Genes & Chromosomes
                                                                                                                          • 3.1.1 Genes
                                                                                                                            • 3.1.2 Alleles
                                                                                                                              • 3.1.3 Mutation
                                                                                                                                • 3.1.4 Genome
                                                                                                                                  • 3.1.5 Prokaryotic Chromosomes
                                                                                                                                    • 3.1.6 Eukaryotic Chromosomes
                                                                                                                                      • 3.1.7 Chromosome Number
                                                                                                                                        • 3.1.8 Sex Determination
                                                                                                                                          • 3.1.9 Karyograms
                                                                                                                                            • 3.1.10 Skills: Using Databases
                                                                                                                                            • 3.2 Meiosis
                                                                                                                                              • 3.2.1 Meiosis
                                                                                                                                                • 3.2.2 Stages of Meiosis
                                                                                                                                                  • 3.2.3 Genetic Variation
                                                                                                                                                    • 3.2.4 Non-disjunction
                                                                                                                                                      • 3.2.5 Skills: Meiosis
                                                                                                                                                      • 3.3 Inheritance
                                                                                                                                                        • 3.3.1 Inheritance
                                                                                                                                                          • 3.3.2 Inheriting Alleles
                                                                                                                                                            • 3.3.3 Skills: Inheritance
                                                                                                                                                              • 3.3.4 Inheritance of Genetic Diseases
                                                                                                                                                                • 3.3.5 Mutations & Disease
                                                                                                                                                                • 3.4 Genetic Modification & Biotechnology
                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.4.1 Electrophoresis & PCR
                                                                                                                                                                    • 3.4.2 DNA Profiling
                                                                                                                                                                      • 3.4.3 Genetic Modification
                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.4.4 Cloning
                                                                                                                                                                          • 3.4.5 Skills: Genetic Modification & Biotechnology
                                                                                                                                                                        • 4. Ecology
                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1 Species, Communities, Ecosystems & Energy Flow
                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.1.1 Species & Population
                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.1.2 Methods of Nutrition
                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.1.3 Community
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1.4 Nutrient Cycling
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.1.5 Energy Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1.6 Energy Losses
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.7 Skills: Species, Communities, Ecosystems & Energy Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.8 Skills: Chi-squared test & Statistical Significance
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.1.9 Skills: Pyramids of Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2 Carbon Cycling & Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.1 Carbon Cycle: Carbon Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.2.2 Carbon Cycle: Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.2.3 Carbon Cycle: Methane
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.2.4 Carbon Cycle: Organic Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.2.5 Climate Change: Greenhouse Effect
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.2.6 Climate Change: Impact
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2.7 Climate Change: Causes
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.8 Skills: Carbon Cycling & Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5. Evolution and Biodiversity
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.1 Evolution & Natural Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.1.1 Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.1.2 Evolution: Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1.3 Variation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.4 Natural Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.1.5 Natural Selection Examples
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.2 Classification & Cladistics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2.1 Classification System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2.2 Classifying Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.2.3 Plant Phyla Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.2.4 Animal Phyla Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.2.5 Cladistics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2.6 Reclassification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2.7 Skills: Classification & Cladistics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6. Human Physiology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.1 Digestion & Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.1 Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.2 Villi & Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.3 Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.4 Skills: Digestion & Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2 The Blood System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.1 The Blood System: History
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.2 The Blood System: Vessels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2.3 The Blood System: Double Circulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.4 The Blood System: Cardiac Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.2.5 The Heart Rate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.2.6 Skills: The Blood System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.3 Defence Against Infectious Disease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.3.1 Skin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.3.2 Blood Clotting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.3.3 White Blood Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.3.4 Antibiotics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.3.5 Antibiotic Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.4 Gas Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.4.1 Ventilation: Function & Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.4.2 Ventilation: Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.4.3 Lung Diseases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.4.4 Skills: Monitoring Ventilation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.5 Neurones & Synapses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.5.1 Neurones: Function & Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.5.2 Nerve Impulses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.5.3 Synapses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.5.4 Skill: Neurones & Synapses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.6 Hormones, Homeostasis & Reproduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.6.1 Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.6.2 Hormones Continued
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.6.3 Reproduction: Background
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.6.4 Reproduction: Sex Determination in Males
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.6.5 Reproduction: Sex Determination in Females
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.6.6 Skills: Reproduction Diagrams
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7. Nucleic Acids (HL Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.1 DNA Structure & Replication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.1.1 DNA Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.2 Mechanism of DNA Replication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.3 Non-coding DNA
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.4 DNA Sequencing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.1.5 Skills: The Hershey & Chase Experiment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.1.6 Skills: Nucleosomes & Molecular Visualisation Software
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.2 Transcription & Gene Expression
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.2.1 Regulation of Gene Expression by Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.2.2 Environment & Gene Expression
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.2.3 Transcription
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.2.4 Post-transcriptional Modification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.2.5 Skills: Analysing DNA Methylation Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.3 Translation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.3.1 Translation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.3.2 Ribosomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.3.3 Translation in Prokaryotes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.3.4 Bioinformatics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.3.5 Levels of Protein Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.3.6 Skills: Polysomes & Ribosomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8. Metabolism, Cell Respiration & Photosynthesis (HL Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1 Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.1 Metabolic Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1.2 Inhibition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.1.3 Bioinformatics & Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1.4 Skills: Rates of Reaction & Types of Inhibition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2 Cell Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.1 Oxidation, Reduction & Phosphorylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.2 Overview of the Stages of Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.3 Glycolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.4 The Link Reaction & The Krebs Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.6 Mitochondria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.7 Skills: Cell Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.3 Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.3.1 Light-dependent Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.3.2 Photophosphorylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.3.3 Light-independent Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.3.4 Investigating Carbon Fixation in Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.3.5 Chloroplast
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3.6 Skills: Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9. Plant Biology (HL Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.1 Transport in the Xylem of Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.1.1 Transpiration in Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.1.2 The Transpiration Stream
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1.3 The Roots & Water Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.4 Adaptations of Xerophytes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.5 Skills: Drawing Xylem Vessels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.1.6 Skills: Experiments Investigating the Rate of Transpiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.2 Transport in the Phloem of Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.2.1 Translocation in Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.2.2 Sucrose Loading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.2.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Gradients
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.2.4 Skills: Identifying Xylem & Phloem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.2.5 Skills: Measuring Phloem Transport Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.3 Growth in Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.3.1 Plant Growth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.3.2 Plant Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.3.3 Micropropagation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.4 Reproduction in Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.4.1 Flowering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.4.2 Plant Reproduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.4.3 Skills: Drawing Plant Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.4.4 Skills: Investigating Factors Affecting Germination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10. Genetics & Evolution (HL Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.1 Meiosis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.1.1 The Process of Meiosis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.1.2 Crossing Over
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1.3 Meiosis I
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.4 Meiosis II
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.5 Skills: Drawing Chiasmata
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.2 Inheritance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.2.1 Unlinked Genes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2.2 Skills: Analysing Dihybrid Crosses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.3 Gene Linkage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.4 Skills: Identifying Recombinants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.5 Skills: Chi-squared Test
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.6 Variation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.3 Gene Pools & Speciation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.3.1 Gene Pools
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.3.2 Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.3.3 Speciation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.3.4 Polyploidy & Speciation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.3.5 Skills: Comparing Allele Frequencies Between Populations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11. Animal Physiology (HL Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.1 Antibody Production & Vaccination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.1.1 Antigens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.1.2 Specific Immune Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.1.3 Antibodies, Vaccines & Immunity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.1.4 Smallpox Vaccine & Eradication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.1.5 Zoonosis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.1.6 Histamines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1.7 Monoclonal Antibodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.1.8 Skills: Analysing Epidemiological Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2 Movement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.2.1 Requirements for Movement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.2.2 Skeletal Muscle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.2.3 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.2.4 Skills: The Human Elbow & Sarcomeres
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.2.5 Skills: Analysing Muscle Contractions in Electron Micrographs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.3 The Kidney & Osmoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.3.1 Osmoregulation in Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.3.2 Kidney: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.3.3 Conserving Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.3.4 The Role of ADH
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.3.5 Types of Nitrogenous Waste
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.3.6 Kidney Failure & Urinalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.3.7 Skills: Drawing & Annotating the Kidney
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.4 Sexual Reproduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.4.1 Oogenesis & Spermatogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.4.2 Fertilisation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.4.3 Pregnancy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.4.4 Hormones in Pregnancy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.4.5 The Placenta
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.4.6 Oestrogen Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.4.7 Skills: Annotating Sexual Reproduction Diagrams

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Author: Cara

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Cara graduated from the University of Exeter in 2005 with a degree in Biological Sciences. She has fifteen years of experience teaching the Sciences at KS3 to KS5, and Psychology at A-Level. Cara has taught in a range of secondary schools across the South West of England before joining the team at SME. Cara is passionate about Biology and creating resources that bring the subject alive and deepen students' understanding


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