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Economics: SL Revision Notes

SL IB Economics

Revision Notes

Home / IB / Economics / SL / Revision Notes / 4. The Global Economy / 4.9 Barriers to Economic Growth & Development / 4.9.2 Economic, Political & Social Barriers


4.9.2 Economic, Political & Social Barriers


Types of Economic Barriers

Economic Factors that Influence Growth & Development


Factor


Explanation

Dependency on the primary sector

  • In 2022 copper exports from Zambia accounted for 70% of their total exports & primary products in excess of 90%. They are suffering from over-specialisation
  • Primary products tend to have a very low-income elasticity of demand (YED). As world income rises, there is a less-than-proportional increase in demand
    • This means that there is limited scope to continue increasing demand
  • Primary products have very little added value
    • Exporting manufactured products raises the added value, income & profits

  • Due to the inelastic nature of both the demand & supply of commodities, small changes in demand or supply can lead to large changes in price, meaning that prices can be volatile
    • When commodity prices rise, GDP rises - & vice versa

Rising income inequality

  • A more equal distribution of income means that more households are able to consume a wider range of goods
    • Economies with a smaller medium-income band face less consumption which leads to less aggregate demand and less economic growth
  • Rising income inequality worsens the problem as the rich get richer and the poor, relatively poorer

Lack of access to international markets

  • International trade is a significant source of economic growth and higher incomes, leading to economic development
  • Many countries cannot access more economically developed markets due to the trade barriers put in place by developed economies to protect their firms
  • The World Trade Organisation (WTO) aims to increase trade liberalisation so as to improve access for all countries

Informal economy

  • Workers in the informal economy are not taxed on their wages
  • The lack of tax revenue reduces the provision of infrastructure, merit and public goods
  • Many developing countries have a larger informal than the formal economy

Capital flight

  • Occurs when money or assets rapidly leave a country
  • This may happen due to political upheaval, economic sanctions, war, or changes to government policy (e.g. interest rates)
    • Sanctions applied to Russia in 2022 resulted in $75 billion of capital outflows
  • Capital flight reduces the money available for investment, reducing growth & development

Indebtedness

  • The higher the level of borrowing from institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the higher the monthly repayments
  • Repaying debt reduces the money available for investment and expenditure on merit and public goods
  • The higher the debt the worse the potential economic growth

Lack of access to infrastructure & appropriate technology

  • Good infrastructure reduces business costs & attracts foreign direct investment
  • Some developing countries have such poor infrastructure which makes it difficult to generate economic activity
    • This is one reason why China has invested so heavily in infrastructure projects in Asia & Africa as it unlocks economic potential

Low levels of human capital

  • Low levels of education and healthcare reduce productivity
  • Investing in supply-side policy to improve health and education increases the potential output of the country (shifts the production possibility frontier outwards)
  • Higher education/skill levels → higher human capital → increased productivity → higher output → higher economic growth → higher income

Geography including landlocked countries

  • Geographic features can limit economic growth
  • Landlocked countries find it harder/more expensive to import and export products (shipping freight is much cheaper than air freight)
  • Natural features such as deserts reduce the quantity of productive land that can be used to generate output and economic growth

Tropical climates and endemic diseases

  • Tropical climates are often associated with debilitating diseases such as malaria or dengue
  • These reduce the productivity and output of the workforce and limit/reduce economic growth

Types of Political & Social Barriers

  • Aside from the economic factors discussed above, a range of non-economic factors can have significant influences on economic growth & development

 4-9-2-types-of-political---social-barriers
Political & social factors which hinder growth & development
 

The institutional framework

  • This refers to the functions of government including the legal system, law enforcement, banking, tax structures and property rights

Legal system

  • A strong legal system builds confidence in an economy
  • Legal institutions help to create boundaries that households and firms can operate within
  • This certainty attracts overseas investment
  • This certainty helps to make business easier to conduct leading to higher economic growth

Tax structure

  • A progressive tax system redistributes from those with higher income to those with lower income & reduces income inequality
  • Sometimes the benefits of a good progressive tax system are eradicated by weak tax collection and tax enforcement

Banking system

  • Lack of access to credit and banking limits economic growth
  • Financial institutions enable individuals & firms to borrow money which can be used for investment or to generate growth
  • A lack of financial institutions prevents this from happening

Property rights

  • In many countries, the property is the main household asset which can be used to secure loans or generate income
  • A lack of property rights in some developing countries prevents this from happening

 

Lack of good governance

  • Leads to inefficient use of resources & poor decision-making. It may also result in laws/regulation which directly inhibits growth & development
  • Often money intended for investment is siphoned off by corrupt politicians resulting in a lower level of investment. Corruption also diverts funds to certain groups who have bribed or lobbied officials (e.g. multinational firms) resulting in projects that deliver a low level of growth & development
     

Unequal political power & status

  • Countries with strong trade union membership provide workers with more power and higher levels of income
  • With low trade union membership, the exploitation of workers through low wages is easier and income inequality is worse
  • Countries with a class system are less incentivised to increase economic growth and development in such a way that it removes the class barriers. This limits growth and development
     

Gender inequality

  • Gender, race or any other discrimination increases income inequality in an economy leading to lower levels of economic growth
  • Gender inequality reduces the incentive for women to work and this can mean a loss of productivity to an economy, leading to lower economic growth

Evaluating Barriers to Growth & Development

  • There are a common set of factors which prohibit economic growth and development, however, each country is unique and is likely to have a different combination of factors which are more prominent
     
  • Understanding the context of the country is vital to evaluating how significant the barrier to economic growth is
    • E.g. Romania has a history of corruption which has reduced its development significantly when compared to other Eastern European countries
    • E.g. India has had infrastructure problems (old rail systems and poor roads) which have limited its ability to grow. To address this weakness, significant government investment has been taking place over the past 10 years and the economy is responding well
    • E.g. Malawi is a landlocked country whose exports are primarily agricultural. Agriculture accounts for 30% of its GDP and the cost of export is higher for a landlocked country. This reduces profits and limits economic growth.

Exam Tip

The data response in paper will frequently have extracts which paint a picture of a developing economy. As you read through the data, think about the economic, political and social barriers to development and growth and seek to identify which ones seem to be most prominent in the extracts presented. Reading with this focus helps you to evaluate the context as you assimilate the information and puts you in a better position to answer the questions which follow.



  • 1. Introduction To Economics
    • 1.1 What Is Economics?
      • 1.1.1 Economics as a Social Science
        • 1.1.2 The Problem of Choice
          • 1.1.3 The Production Possibilities Curve Model (PPC)
            • 1.1.4 Modelling the Economy
            • 1.2 How Do Economists Approach The World?
              • 1.2.1 Economic Methodology
                • 1.2.2 Economic Thought
              • 2. Microeconomics
                • 2.1 Demand
                  • 2.1.1 Demand, Price & Quantity
                    • 2.1.2 Non-Price Determinants of Demand
                    • 2.2 Supply
                      • 2.2.1 Supply, Price & Quantity
                        • 2.2.2 Non-Price Determinants of Supply
                        • 2.3 Competitive Market Equilibrium
                          • 2.3.1 Market Equilibrium & Disequilibrium
                            • 2.3.2 Functions of the Price Mechanism
                              • 2.3.3 Consumer & Producer Surplus
                              • 2.4 Price Elasticity of Demand (PED)
                                • 2.4.1 Definition, Calculation & Determinants of PED
                                  • 2.4.2 The Significance of PED
                                  • 2.5 Income Elasticity of Demand (YED)
                                    • 2.5.1 Definition, Calculation & Illustration of YED
                                    • 2.6 Price Elasticity of Supply (PES)
                                      • 2.6.1 Definition, Calculation & Determinants of PES
                                      • 2.7 Role of Government In Microeconomics
                                        • 2.7.1 Reasons For Government Intervention In Markets
                                          • 2.7.2 Government Intervention: Indirect Taxes & Subsidies
                                            • 2.7.3 Government Intervention: Price Controls, Direct Provision & Regulation
                                            • 2.8 Market Failure: Externalities & Common Pool (Access) Resources
                                              • 2.8.1 Market Failure
                                                • 2.8.2 Negative Externalities
                                                  • 2.8.3 Positive Externalities
                                                    • 2.8.4 Common Pool (Access) Resources
                                                      • 2.8.5 Government Intervention to Address the Market Failure
                                                        • 2.8.6 Other Interventions to Address the Market Failure
                                                        • 2.9 Market Failure: Public Goods
                                                          • 2.9.1 Public Goods
                                                        • 3. Macroeconomics
                                                          • 3.1 Measuring Economic Activity
                                                            • 3.1.1 National Income & The Circular Flow of Income
                                                              • 3.1.2 National Income Terminology & Calculations
                                                                • 3.1.3 The Business Cycle
                                                                  • 3.1.4 Appropriateness of Using GDP/GNI to Measure Well-being
                                                                    • 3.1.5 Alternative Measures of Well-Being
                                                                    • 3.2 Variations in Economic Activity (AD & AS)
                                                                      • 3.2.1 Aggregate Demand (AD)
                                                                        • 3.2.2 Short-Run Aggregate Supply (SRAS)
                                                                          • 3.2.3 Alternative Views of Aggregate Supply (AS)
                                                                            • 3.2.4 Shifts of the Long-Run Aggregate Supply (LRAS)
                                                                              • 3.2.5 Macroeconomic Equilibrium
                                                                              • 3.3 Macroeconomic Objectives
                                                                                • 3.3.1 An Introduction to Macroeconomic Objectives
                                                                                  • 3.3.2 Economic Growth
                                                                                    • 3.3.3 Low Unemployment
                                                                                      • 3.3.4 Low & Stable Rate of Inflation
                                                                                        • 3.3.5 Potential Conflicts Between Macroeconomic Objectives
                                                                                        • 3.4 Inequality & Poverty
                                                                                          • 3.4.1 Measuring Inequality & Poverty
                                                                                            • 3.4.2 Causes of Inequality & Poverty
                                                                                              • 3.4.3 Using Taxation to Reduce Inequality & Poverty
                                                                                                • 3.4.4 Other Policies to Reduce Inequality & Poverty
                                                                                                • 3.5 Demand Management: Monetary Policy
                                                                                                  • 3.5.1 An Overview of Monetary Policy
                                                                                                  • 3.6 Demand Management: Fiscal Policy
                                                                                                    • 3.6.1 An Overview of Fiscal Policy
                                                                                                    • 3.7 Supply-Side Policies
                                                                                                      • 3.7.1 An Overview of Supply-Side Policies
                                                                                                        • 3.7.2 The Effectiveness of Supply-Side Policies
                                                                                                      • 4. The Global Economy
                                                                                                        • 4.1 Benefits of International Trade
                                                                                                          • 4.1.1 The Advantages of Free Trade
                                                                                                          • 4.2 Types of Trade Protection
                                                                                                            • 4.2.1 Tariffs
                                                                                                              • 4.2.2 Quotas
                                                                                                                • 4.2.3 Export Subsidies
                                                                                                                  • 4.2.4 Administrative Barriers
                                                                                                                  • 4.3 Arguments For & Against Trade Protection
                                                                                                                    • 4.3.1 Arguments For & Against Trade Protection
                                                                                                                    • 4.4 Economic Integration
                                                                                                                      • 4.4.1 Understanding Economic Integration
                                                                                                                        • 4.4.2 Types of Trading Blocs
                                                                                                                          • 4.4.3 The World Trade Organisation (WTO)
                                                                                                                          • 4.5 Exchange Rates
                                                                                                                            • 4.5.1 Types of Exchange Rate Systems
                                                                                                                              • 4.5.2 Causes & Consequences of Exchange Rate Fluctuations
                                                                                                                              • 4.6 Balance of Payments
                                                                                                                                • 4.6.1 Components of the Balance of Payments
                                                                                                                                • 4.7 Sustainable Development
                                                                                                                                  • 4.7.1 The Sustainable Development Goals
                                                                                                                                  • 4.8 Measuring Economic Development
                                                                                                                                    • 4.8.1 Single Indicators of Development
                                                                                                                                      • 4.8.2 Composite Indicators of Development
                                                                                                                                        • 4.8.3 Evaluating the Different Approaches
                                                                                                                                        • 4.9 Barriers to Economic Growth & Development
                                                                                                                                          • 4.9.1 Poverty Traps
                                                                                                                                            • 4.9.2 Economic, Political & Social Barriers
                                                                                                                                            • 4.10 Economic Growth & Development Strategies
                                                                                                                                              • 4.10.1 Trade Strategies, Diversification & Social Enterprise
                                                                                                                                                • 4.10.2 Market-Based & Interventionist Policies
                                                                                                                                                  • 4.10.3 Merit Goods & Inward Foreign Direct Investment
                                                                                                                                                    • 4.10.4 Foreign Aid & Development Assistance
                                                                                                                                                      • 4.10.5 Institutional Change
                                                                                                                                                        • 4.10.6 Evaluating Market Orientated Approaches Versus Government Intervention
                                                                                                                                                          • 4.10.7 Progress Towards Sustainable Development Goals

                                                                                                                                                        Author: Steve



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