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DP IB Chemistry: HL

Revision Notes

Home / IB / Chemistry: HL / DP / Revision Notes / 1. Stoichiometric Relationships / 1.1 Matter, Chemical Change & the Mole Concept / 1.1.2 Equations


1.1.2 Equations


Balancing Equations

  • A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction using chemical symbols to show the number and type of each atom in the reactants and products
  • A word equation is a longer way of describing a chemical reaction using only words to show the reactants and products

Balancing equations

  • During chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed
  • The number of each atom on each side of the reaction must therefore be the same
    • E.g. the reaction needs to be balanced

  • When balancing equations remember:
    • Not to change any of the formulae
    • To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
    • To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen in combustion reactions of organic compounds
  • When balancing equations follow the following the steps:
    • Write the formulae of the reactants and products
    • Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
    • Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
    • Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
  • The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is specified by using state symbols
    • (s) solid
    • (l) liquid
    • (g) gas
    • (aq) aqueous

Ionic equations

  • In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
  • Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds, however only some of the ions in solution take part in the reactions
  • The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
  • An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction, without showing the spectator ions

Worked Example

Balance the following equation:

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

Answer:

Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products

Mg + O2 → MgO

Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product

Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry Worked example - Balancing equations table, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2 moles of magnesium oxide

Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

Worked Example

  1. Balance the following equation
  2. Zinc + copper(II) sulfate → Zinc sulfate + copper
  3. Write down the ionic equation for the above reaction

Answer 1:

Step 1: To balance the equation, write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products

Zn  + CuSO4  → ZnSO4 + Cu

Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product. The equation is already balanced

Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry Worked example - Equations (balancing & ionic) table, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

Step 3: Use appropriate state symbols in the equation

Zn (s)  + CuSO4 (aq)  → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Answer 2:

Step 1:  The full chemical equation for the reaction is

Zn (s)  + CuSO4 (aq)  → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Step 2:  Break down reactants into their respective ions

Zn (s)  + Cu2+ SO42- (aq)  → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s) 

Step 3:  Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic equation

Zn (s)  + Cu2+SO42- (aq)  → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)

Zn (s)  + Cu2+(aq)  → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)



  • 1. Stoichiometric Relationships
    • 1.1 Matter, Chemical Change & the Mole Concept
      • 1.1.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
        • 1.1.2 Equations
          • 1.1.3 State Changes
            • 1.1.4 The Mole Concept
              • 1.1.5 Moles-Mass Problems
                • 1.1.6 Empirical Formulae
                • 1.2 Reacting Masses & Volumes
                  • 1.2.1 Reacting Masses
                    • 1.2.2 Reaction Yields
                      • 1.2.3 Avogadro's Law & Molar Gas Volume
                        • 1.2.4 The Ideal Gas Equation
                          • 1.2.5 Gas Law Relationships
                            • 1.2.6 Real Gases
                              • 1.2.7 Standard Solutions
                                • 1.2.8 Concentration Calculations
                                  • 1.2.9 Titrations
                                • 2. Atomic Structure
                                  • 2.1 Atomic & Electronic Structure
                                    • 2.1.1 The Nuclear Atom
                                      • 2.1.2 Deducing Subatomic Particles
                                        • 2.1.3 Relative Atomic Mass Calculations
                                          • 2.1.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
                                            • 2.1.5 Emission Spectra
                                              • 2.1.6 Energy Levels & Sublevels
                                                • 2.1.7 Sublevels & Orbitals
                                                  • 2.1.8 Writing Electron Configurations
                                                • 3. Periodicity
                                                  • 3.1 The Periodic Table & Periodic Trends
                                                    • 3.1.1 The Periodic Table
                                                      • 3.1.2 Periodic Trends: Physical - Atomic & Ionic Radius
                                                        • 3.1.3 Periodic Trends: Physical - Ionisation Energy
                                                          • 3.1.4 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electron Affinity
                                                            • 3.1.5 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electronegativity
                                                              • 3.1.6 Periodic Trends: Chemical
                                                              • 3.2 Oxides, Group 1 & Group 17
                                                                • 3.2.1 Periodic Trends: Oxides Across a Period
                                                                  • 3.2.2 Periodic Trends: Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
                                                                    • 3.2.3 Periodic Trends: Group 17 - The Halogens
                                                                  • 4. Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                    • 4.1 Ionic & Covalent Bonding
                                                                      • 4.1.1 Forming Ions
                                                                        • 4.1.2 Ionic Compounds
                                                                          • 4.1.3 Formulae & Names of Ionic Compounds
                                                                            • 4.1.4 Covalent Bonds
                                                                              • 4.1.5 Bond Polarity
                                                                                • 4.1.6 Lewis Structures
                                                                                • 4.2 Resonance, Shapes & Giant Structures
                                                                                  • 4.2.1 Resonance Structures
                                                                                    • 4.2.2 Shapes of Molecules
                                                                                      • 4.2.3 Predicting Molecular Shapes
                                                                                        • 4.2.4 Molecular Polarity
                                                                                          • 4.2.5 Giant Covalent Structures
                                                                                          • 4.3 Intermolecular Forces & Metallic Bonding
                                                                                            • 4.3.1 Types of Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                              • 4.3.2 Deducing Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                                • 4.3.3 Properties of Covalent Compounds
                                                                                                  • 4.3.4 Metallic Bonding
                                                                                                    • 4.3.5 Trends in Melting Points of Metals
                                                                                                      • 4.3.6 Alloys & their Properties
                                                                                                    • 5. Energetics/ Thermochemistry
                                                                                                      • 5.1 Energetics
                                                                                                        • 5.1.1 Energy Changes in Reactions
                                                                                                          • 5.1.2 Standard Enthalpy Change
                                                                                                            • 5.1.3 Calorimetry
                                                                                                              • 5.1.4 Calorimetry Experiments
                                                                                                              • 5.2 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                • 5.2.1 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                  • 5.2.2 Using Hess's Law - Cycles
                                                                                                                    • 5.2.3 Using Hess's Law - Equations
                                                                                                                      • 5.2.4 Using ∆Hf° to Find Enthalpy Changes
                                                                                                                      • 5.3 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                        • 5.3.1 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                          • 5.3.2 Bond Enthalpy Calculations
                                                                                                                            • 5.3.3 Energy Profiles
                                                                                                                              • 5.3.4 Case Study: Ozone
                                                                                                                            • 6. Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                              • 6.1 Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                • 6.1.1 Collision Theory
                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.2 Rate of Reaction
                                                                                                                                    • 6.1.3 Measuring Rates
                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.4 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.5 Rate Experiments
                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.6 Explaining Rates
                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.7 Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves
                                                                                                                                              • 6.1.8 Energy Profiles & Catalysis
                                                                                                                                            • 7. Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                              • 7.1 Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                • 7.1.1 The State of Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.2 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.3 Equilibrium Constant Relationships
                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.4 The Reaction Quotient
                                                                                                                                                        • 7.1.5 Le Chatelier's Principle
                                                                                                                                                          • 7.1.6 Catalysts & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                        • 8. Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1 Theories & Reactions of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.2 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.3 Characteristic Reactions of Acids
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.4 Neutralization
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2 More About Acids
                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.1 Acid-base Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.2 pH & [H⁺]
                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.3 Interpreting pH
                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.4 The Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.5 Acid-Base Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.6 pH Meters & Universal Indicator
                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.7 Strong & Weak Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.8 Comparing Strong & Weak Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3.1 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.3.2 Effects of Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.3.3 Reducing Sulfur Oxide Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9. Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1 Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.1 Oxidation & reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.2 Deducing Oxidation Numbers
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.1.3 Oxidizing & Reducing agents
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.1.4 Naming Transition Metal Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.1.5 Half Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.1.6 The Activity Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.1.7 Redox Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1.8 The Winkler Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.9 Voltaic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.10 Electrolytic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10. Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.1 Homologous Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.2 Understanding Organic Molecules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.3 Nomenclature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.4 Organic Families - Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.1.5 Organic Families - Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.1.6 Organic Families - Alcohols & Ethers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.1.7 Organic Families - Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1.8 Organic Families - Carboxylic Acids & Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.9 Organic Families - Organic Nitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.10 3-D modelling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.11 Primary, Secondary & Tertiary atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.12 Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2 Functional Group Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.1 Alkanes - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.2 Alkanes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.3 Alkenes - Reactivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.4 Alkenes - Hydrogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.5 Alkenes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.2.6 Alkenes - Hydrohalogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.2.7 Alkenes - Hydration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2.8 Addition Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.9 Alcohols - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.10 Alcohols - Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.11 Alcohols - Esterification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.12 Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.13 Reactions of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11. Measurements & Data Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.1 Spectroscopic Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.1.1 Index of Hydrogen Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.1.2 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.1.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2 Synoptic Data Handling & Graphical Skills
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.2.1 Recording Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.2.2 Processing Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.2.3 Reducing the Impact of Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.2.4 Percentage Error
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.2.5 Drawing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.2.6 Analysing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12. HL Atomic Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.1 Electrons in Atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 12.1.1 Emission Spectra & First Ionisation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.1.2 Ionisation Energy Trends
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13. HL The Periodic Table- Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.1 Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.1.1 Transition Elements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.1.2 Variable Oxidation States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.1.3 Complex Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.1.4 Catalytic & Magnetic Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.1.5 Colour in Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.1.6 Factors Affecting Colour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14. HL Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.1 More Structures & Shapes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.1.1 Covalent Bonds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.1.2 More Lewis Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.1.3 Further VSEPR Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.1.4 Formal Charge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.2 Further Aspects of Bonding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.2.1 Delocalisation & Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.2.2 Ozone Revisited
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.2.3 Hybrid Orbitals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15. HL Energetics / Thermochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.1 Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.1.1 Key Enthalpy Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.1.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.1.3 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.1.4 Dissolution Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.1.5 Energy Changes in Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.2 Entropy & Spontaneity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.2.1 Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.2.2 Calculating Entropy Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.2.3 Gibbs Free Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.2.4 Spontaneous Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.2.5 Free Energy & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16. HL Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.1 Rate Expression & Reaction Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.1.1 Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.1.2 Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.1.3 Graphical Representations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.1.4 Rate Determining Step
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.1.5 Mechanism Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.2 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.2.1 The Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.2.2 Graphing the Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.2.3 Activation Energy from Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 17. HL Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 17.1 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.1.1 Applying the Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.1.2 Gibbs Free Energy & the Equilibrium Constant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18. HL Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.1 Further Aspects of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.1.1 Lewis Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.1.2 pH Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.1.3 Indicators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.1.4 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.1.5 Salt Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.2 Calculations Involving Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.2.1 Acid & Base Dissociation Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.2.2 Acid & Base Problem Solving
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19. HL Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.1.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.1.2 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.1.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.1.4 Quantitative Electrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.1.5 Free Energy & Eº
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.1.6 Electroplating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20. HL Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.1 Types of Organic Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.1.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.1.2 Electrophilic Addition Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.1.3 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.1.4 Reduction Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.2 Synthetic Routes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.2.1 Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.3 Stereoisomerism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.3.1 Stereoisomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.3.2 Cis-Trans & E/Z Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.3.3 Optical Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21. Measurement & Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.1 Spectroscopic Identification of Organic compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 21.1.1 High Resolution NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.1.2 X-Ray Crystallography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 21.1.3 Structure Identification Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Richard Boole

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Richard

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Richard has taught Chemistry for over 15 years as well as working as a science tutor, examiner, content creator and author. He wasn’t the greatest at exams and only discovered how to revise in his final year at university. That knowledge made him want to help students learn how to revise, challenge them to think about what they actually know and hopefully succeed; so here he is, happily, at SME.


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