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DP IB Chemistry: HL

Revision Notes

Home / IB / Chemistry: HL / DP / Revision Notes / 13. HL The Periodic Table- Transition Metals / 13.1 Transition Metals / 13.1.6 Factors Affecting Colour


13.1.6 Factors Affecting Colour


Factors Affecting Colour

  • The size of the splitting energy ΔE in the d-orbitals is influenced by the following four factors:
    • The size and type of ligands
    • The nuclear charge and identity of the metal ion
    • The oxidation state of the metal
    • The shape of the complex
Chemistry of Transition Elements - Coloured Transition Metal Complexes, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

The large variety of coloured compounds is a defining characteristic of transition metals

Size and type of ligand

  • The nature of the ligand influences the strength of the interaction between ligand and central metal ion
  • Ligands vary in their charge density
  • The greater the charge density; the more strongly the ligand interacts with the metal ion causing greater splitting of the d-orbitals
  • The further it is then shifted towards the region of the spectrum where it absorbs higher energy
  • As a result, a different colour of light is absorbed by the complex solution and a different complementary colour is observed
  • This means that complexes with the same transition elements ions, but different ligands, can have different colours
    • For example, the [Cu(H2O)6]2+ complex has a light blue colour
    • Whereas the [Cu(NH3)4 (H2O)2]2+ has a dark blue colour despite the copper(II) ion having an oxidation state of +2 in both complexesChemistry of Transition Elements - Copper(II) Change in Colour, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

Ligand exchange of the water ligands by ammonia ligands causes a change in colour of the copper(II) complex solution

  • Ammonia has a greater charge density than water and so produces a larger split in the d-orbitals

Absorption spectra of two copper(II) complexes, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

Graph showing the replacement of the water molecules with four ammonia molecules causes a shift in maximum absorbance towards shorter wavelength

The nuclear charge

  • The strength of the attraction between the metal ion and lone pairs of electrons from the ligand can vary depending on the effective nuclear charge on the metal ion
  • For example, aqueous Mn(II) and Fe(III) have the same electronic configuration:

[Ar] 3d5

  • Mn(II) (Z=25) absorbs in the green region of the spectrum so appears pink
  • The higher effective nuclear charge on Fe(III) (Z= 26) causes a stronger interaction with the ligands, so it absorbs in the higher energy blue part of the spectrum and appears yellow/orange in colour

Oxidation state

  • When the same metal is in a higher oxidation state that will also create a stronger interaction with the ligands
  • If you compare iron(II) and iron (III):
    • [Fe(H2O)6]2+ absorbs in the red region and appears green
    • But, [Fe(H2O)6]3+ absorbs in blue region and appears orange

Shape

  • The change of colour in a complex is also partly due to the change in coordination number and geometry of the complex ion
  • The splitting energy, ΔE, of the d-orbitals is affected by the relative orientation of the ligand as well as the d-orbitals
  • Changing the coordination number generally involves changing the ligand as well, so it is a combination of these factors that alters the strength of the interactions

The Spectrochemical Series

  • The Japanese chemist, R. Tuschida, proposed a ranking of ligands base on their ability to separate the two sets of d-orbitals
  • This is known as the spectrochemical series
  • The higher the charge density of the ligand; the more strongly it influences the splitting of the d-orbitals so the greater the energy difference between them

Table showing the spectrochemical series for common ligands

Spectrochemical Series, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

  • You can see at either end of the series lies iodide ions, I-, and carbon monoxide, CO
  • Iodide ions are large (think how many electron shells they have) so they have a relative low charge density and produce the weakest electric field so the separation energy of the d-orbitals is the smallest in the series
  • Chloride ions, Cl-, on the other hand are smaller, have a higher charge density and consequently produce a large separation energy
  • However, size is not the only factor as carbon monoxide and cyanide ions produce a larger splitting due to complex interactions involving the pi bonds present in those molecules; those interactions occur when electrons in the d-orbitals of the transition metal interact with electrons in the p-orbitals of the ligands
  • You should be able to see why adding ammonia to aqueous copper(II) ions results in a darker blue complex
    • Ammonia is a stronger ligand than water so the separation energy is larger and the wavelength of absorbed light shorter
    • Shorter wavelength means moving towards to bluer higher energy end of the visible spectrum

Exam Tip

You do not need to learn the spectrochemical series as it is given in the data booklet in section 15. A list of polydentate ligands is also given in the data booklet in section 16.



  • 1. Stoichiometric Relationships
    • 1.1 Matter, Chemical Change & the Mole Concept
      • 1.1.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
        • 1.1.2 Equations
          • 1.1.3 State Changes
            • 1.1.4 The Mole Concept
              • 1.1.5 Moles-Mass Problems
                • 1.1.6 Empirical Formulae
                • 1.2 Reacting Masses & Volumes
                  • 1.2.1 Reacting Masses
                    • 1.2.2 Reaction Yields
                      • 1.2.3 Avogadro's Law & Molar Gas Volume
                        • 1.2.4 The Ideal Gas Equation
                          • 1.2.5 Gas Law Relationships
                            • 1.2.6 Real Gases
                              • 1.2.7 Standard Solutions
                                • 1.2.8 Concentration Calculations
                                  • 1.2.9 Titrations
                                • 2. Atomic Structure
                                  • 2.1 Atomic & Electronic Structure
                                    • 2.1.1 The Nuclear Atom
                                      • 2.1.2 Deducing Subatomic Particles
                                        • 2.1.3 Relative Atomic Mass Calculations
                                          • 2.1.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
                                            • 2.1.5 Emission Spectra
                                              • 2.1.6 Energy Levels & Sublevels
                                                • 2.1.7 Sublevels & Orbitals
                                                  • 2.1.8 Writing Electron Configurations
                                                • 3. Periodicity
                                                  • 3.1 The Periodic Table & Periodic Trends
                                                    • 3.1.1 The Periodic Table
                                                      • 3.1.2 Periodic Trends: Physical - Atomic & Ionic Radius
                                                        • 3.1.3 Periodic Trends: Physical - Ionisation Energy
                                                          • 3.1.4 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electron Affinity
                                                            • 3.1.5 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electronegativity
                                                              • 3.1.6 Periodic Trends: Chemical
                                                              • 3.2 Oxides, Group 1 & Group 17
                                                                • 3.2.1 Periodic Trends: Oxides Across a Period
                                                                  • 3.2.2 Periodic Trends: Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
                                                                    • 3.2.3 Periodic Trends: Group 17 - The Halogens
                                                                  • 4. Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                    • 4.1 Ionic & Covalent Bonding
                                                                      • 4.1.1 Forming Ions
                                                                        • 4.1.2 Ionic Compounds
                                                                          • 4.1.3 Formulae & Names of Ionic Compounds
                                                                            • 4.1.4 Covalent Bonds
                                                                              • 4.1.5 Bond Polarity
                                                                                • 4.1.6 Lewis Structures
                                                                                • 4.2 Resonance, Shapes & Giant Structures
                                                                                  • 4.2.1 Resonance Structures
                                                                                    • 4.2.2 Shapes of Molecules
                                                                                      • 4.2.3 Predicting Molecular Shapes
                                                                                        • 4.2.4 Molecular Polarity
                                                                                          • 4.2.5 Giant Covalent Structures
                                                                                          • 4.3 Intermolecular Forces & Metallic Bonding
                                                                                            • 4.3.1 Types of Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                              • 4.3.2 Deducing Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                                • 4.3.3 Properties of Covalent Compounds
                                                                                                  • 4.3.4 Metallic Bonding
                                                                                                    • 4.3.5 Trends in Melting Points of Metals
                                                                                                      • 4.3.6 Alloys & their Properties
                                                                                                    • 5. Energetics/ Thermochemistry
                                                                                                      • 5.1 Energetics
                                                                                                        • 5.1.1 Energy Changes in Reactions
                                                                                                          • 5.1.2 Standard Enthalpy Change
                                                                                                            • 5.1.3 Calorimetry
                                                                                                              • 5.1.4 Calorimetry Experiments
                                                                                                              • 5.2 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                • 5.2.1 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                  • 5.2.2 Using Hess's Law - Cycles
                                                                                                                    • 5.2.3 Using Hess's Law - Equations
                                                                                                                      • 5.2.4 Using ∆Hf° to Find Enthalpy Changes
                                                                                                                      • 5.3 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                        • 5.3.1 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                          • 5.3.2 Bond Enthalpy Calculations
                                                                                                                            • 5.3.3 Energy Profiles
                                                                                                                              • 5.3.4 Case Study: Ozone
                                                                                                                            • 6. Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                              • 6.1 Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                • 6.1.1 Collision Theory
                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.2 Rate of Reaction
                                                                                                                                    • 6.1.3 Measuring Rates
                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.4 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.5 Rate Experiments
                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.6 Explaining Rates
                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.7 Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves
                                                                                                                                              • 6.1.8 Energy Profiles & Catalysis
                                                                                                                                            • 7. Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                              • 7.1 Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                • 7.1.1 The State of Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.2 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.3 Equilibrium Constant Relationships
                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.4 The Reaction Quotient
                                                                                                                                                        • 7.1.5 Le Chatelier's Principle
                                                                                                                                                          • 7.1.6 Catalysts & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                        • 8. Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1 Theories & Reactions of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.2 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.3 Characteristic Reactions of Acids
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.4 Neutralization
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2 More About Acids
                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.1 Acid-base Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.2 pH & [H⁺]
                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.3 Interpreting pH
                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.4 The Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.5 Acid-Base Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.6 pH Meters & Universal Indicator
                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.7 Strong & Weak Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.8 Comparing Strong & Weak Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3.1 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.3.2 Effects of Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.3.3 Reducing Sulfur Oxide Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9. Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1 Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.1 Oxidation & reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.2 Deducing Oxidation Numbers
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.1.3 Oxidizing & Reducing agents
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.1.4 Naming Transition Metal Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.1.5 Half Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.1.6 The Activity Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.1.7 Redox Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1.8 The Winkler Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.9 Voltaic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.10 Electrolytic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10. Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.1 Homologous Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.2 Understanding Organic Molecules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.3 Nomenclature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.4 Organic Families - Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.1.5 Organic Families - Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.1.6 Organic Families - Alcohols & Ethers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.1.7 Organic Families - Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1.8 Organic Families - Carboxylic Acids & Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.9 Organic Families - Organic Nitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.10 3-D modelling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.11 Primary, Secondary & Tertiary atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.12 Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2 Functional Group Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.1 Alkanes - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.2 Alkanes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.3 Alkenes - Reactivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.4 Alkenes - Hydrogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.5 Alkenes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.2.6 Alkenes - Hydrohalogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.2.7 Alkenes - Hydration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2.8 Addition Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.9 Alcohols - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.10 Alcohols - Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.11 Alcohols - Esterification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.12 Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.13 Reactions of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11. Measurements & Data Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.1 Spectroscopic Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.1.1 Index of Hydrogen Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.1.2 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.1.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2 Synoptic Data Handling & Graphical Skills
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.2.1 Recording Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.2.2 Processing Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.2.3 Reducing the Impact of Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.2.4 Percentage Error
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.2.5 Drawing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.2.6 Analysing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12. HL Atomic Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.1 Electrons in Atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 12.1.1 Emission Spectra & First Ionisation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.1.2 Ionisation Energy Trends
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13. HL The Periodic Table- Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.1 Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.1.1 Transition Elements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.1.2 Variable Oxidation States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.1.3 Complex Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.1.4 Catalytic & Magnetic Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.1.5 Colour in Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.1.6 Factors Affecting Colour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14. HL Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.1 More Structures & Shapes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.1.1 Covalent Bonds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.1.2 More Lewis Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.1.3 Further VSEPR Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.1.4 Formal Charge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.2 Further Aspects of Bonding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.2.1 Delocalisation & Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.2.2 Ozone Revisited
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.2.3 Hybrid Orbitals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15. HL Energetics / Thermochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.1 Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.1.1 Key Enthalpy Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.1.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.1.3 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.1.4 Dissolution Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.1.5 Energy Changes in Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.2 Entropy & Spontaneity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.2.1 Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.2.2 Calculating Entropy Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.2.3 Gibbs Free Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.2.4 Spontaneous Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.2.5 Free Energy & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16. HL Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.1 Rate Expression & Reaction Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.1.1 Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.1.2 Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.1.3 Graphical Representations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.1.4 Rate Determining Step
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.1.5 Mechanism Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.2 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.2.1 The Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.2.2 Graphing the Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.2.3 Activation Energy from Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 17. HL Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 17.1 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.1.1 Applying the Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.1.2 Gibbs Free Energy & the Equilibrium Constant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18. HL Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.1 Further Aspects of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.1.1 Lewis Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.1.2 pH Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.1.3 Indicators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.1.4 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.1.5 Salt Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.2 Calculations Involving Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.2.1 Acid & Base Dissociation Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.2.2 Acid & Base Problem Solving
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19. HL Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.1.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.1.2 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.1.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.1.4 Quantitative Electrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.1.5 Free Energy & Eº
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.1.6 Electroplating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20. HL Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.1 Types of Organic Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.1.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.1.2 Electrophilic Addition Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.1.3 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.1.4 Reduction Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.2 Synthetic Routes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.2.1 Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.3 Stereoisomerism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.3.1 Stereoisomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.3.2 Cis-Trans & E/Z Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.3.3 Optical Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21. Measurement & Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.1 Spectroscopic Identification of Organic compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 21.1.1 High Resolution NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.1.2 X-Ray Crystallography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 21.1.3 Structure Identification Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Stewart Hird

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Stewart

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Stewart has been an enthusiastic GCSE, A Level and IB Chemistry teacher for more than 30 years in the UK as well as overseas, and has been an examiner for IB and A Level, also. As a long-standing Head of Department, Stewart brings a wealth of experience to creating Topic Questions and revision materials for Save My Exams.


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