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DP IB Chemistry: HL

Revision Notes

Home / IB / Chemistry: HL / DP / Revision Notes / 18. HL Acids & Bases / 18.1 Further Aspects of Acids & Bases / 18.1.1 Lewis Theory


18.1.1 Lewis Theory


Lewis Theory of Acids & Bases

  • A more general definition of acids and bases was given by G.N. Lewis who defined them as:
    • A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor
    • A Lewis base is an electron pair donor

Lewis acid and Lewis base general, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

General mechanism for Lewis acids and bases

  • This enabled a wider range of substances to be classed as acids or bases
  • This can be shown in the following examples in which a hydroxide ion, OH-, and ammonia, NH3, donate a pair of electrons to a hydrogen ion
18-1-lewis-acid-and-lewis-base-example

The OH- ion and ammonia act as Lewis bases in both examples by donating an electron pair

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

  • A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a species that can donate a proton
    • For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl) is a Brønsted-Lowry acid as it can lose a proton to form a hydrogen (H+) and chloride (Cl–) ion

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)

  • A Brønsted-Lowry base is a species that can accept a proton
    • For example, a hydroxide (OH–) ion is a Brønsted-Lowry base as it can accept a proton to form water

OH– (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)

Weak acids dissociating
  • In an equilibrium reaction, the products are formed at the same rate as the reactants are used
  • This means that at equilibrium, both reactants and products are present in the solution
  • For example, ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid that partially dissociates in solution
  • When equilibrium is established there are CH3COOH, H2O, CH3COO– and H3O+ ions present in the solution

Lewis Acid, Lewis Base, Brønsted-Lowry acid or Brønsted-Lowry base

  • A point to consider when thinking about Lewis acids and bases as well as Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases is the donating and accepting of protons
    • Brønsted-Lowry acid and base theory restricts the acids to proton donors only

  • A Lewis acid can accept a pair of electrons and it can also accept a proton
    • As a lone pair of electrons present a proton can be accepted, the OH- ion is a good example of this

  • To be defined as a Brønsted-Lowry acid or base, a proton must be donated or accepted
  • This does not of course occur in every reaction
  • For example:
    • The lone pair on the nitrogen atom in ammonia, NH3 , can be donated to the boron atom in boron trifluoride, BF3, creating a molecule of NH3BF3
    • In this case, neither compound reacts as an Brønsted-Lowry acid or Brønsted-Lowry base as no protons (H+ ions) are being donated or accepted
    • Only electron pairs are being donated and accepted

NH3BF3 example, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

Ammonia donates a lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond 

  • Here boron forms three sp2 hybridised orbitals leaving a vacant 2pz orbital which allows the lone pair on the nitrogen atom to form a dative covalent bond

Hybridisation of boron, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

Hybridisation of the boron atom 

  • The following molecules can behave as either Lewis bases and Brønsted-Lowry acids
    • Lewis bases as they can donate an electron pair
    • Brønsted-Lowry base as they can accept a proton

Bronsted and Lewis examples, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

Examples of molecules that can behave both as Lewis bases and Brønsted-Lowry base

Identifying Lewis Acids & Bases

  • In the case of a complex ion, such as hexaaquacopper(II), the water molecule is acting as a Lewis base and the metal ion is acting as a Lewis acid
    • Copper(II), like other transition metals, can form a complex due to a partially occupied d subshell
    • Cu2+ (aq) + 6H2O (l) → [Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq)

Copper complex, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

Hexaaquacopper(II) complex 

  • Given that Lewis acids can donate a pair of electrons, they can be classed as electrophiles
    • An electrophile is a electron-deficient species that can accept a lone pair from a nucleophile, in the same way the Cu2+ ion accepts electron pairs from water
  • The cyanide ion, -CN , water, H2O , ammonia , NH3 , are examples of Lewis bases and they can also act as nucleophiles
    • Nucleophiles are electron rich species with at least on pair of lone electrons

Worked Example

Identify the Lewis acid and Lewis base in the following reaction

Worked example methanoate ion, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

Methanoate ion reacting with water

Answer

    • The Lewis acid is water, H2O
      • The hydrogen in the water molecule is accepting a pair of electrons leaving an OH- ion

    • The Lewis base is the methanoate ion, HCOO-
      • The lone pair of electrons in the methanoate ion forms a coordinate bond with one of the hydrogens from the water molecule
 


  • 1. Stoichiometric Relationships
    • 1.1 Matter, Chemical Change & the Mole Concept
      • 1.1.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
        • 1.1.2 Equations
          • 1.1.3 State Changes
            • 1.1.4 The Mole Concept
              • 1.1.5 Moles-Mass Problems
                • 1.1.6 Empirical Formulae
                • 1.2 Reacting Masses & Volumes
                  • 1.2.1 Reacting Masses
                    • 1.2.2 Reaction Yields
                      • 1.2.3 Avogadro's Law & Molar Gas Volume
                        • 1.2.4 The Ideal Gas Equation
                          • 1.2.5 Gas Law Relationships
                            • 1.2.6 Real Gases
                              • 1.2.7 Standard Solutions
                                • 1.2.8 Concentration Calculations
                                  • 1.2.9 Titrations
                                • 2. Atomic Structure
                                  • 2.1 Atomic & Electronic Structure
                                    • 2.1.1 The Nuclear Atom
                                      • 2.1.2 Deducing Subatomic Particles
                                        • 2.1.3 Relative Atomic Mass Calculations
                                          • 2.1.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
                                            • 2.1.5 Emission Spectra
                                              • 2.1.6 Energy Levels & Sublevels
                                                • 2.1.7 Sublevels & Orbitals
                                                  • 2.1.8 Writing Electron Configurations
                                                • 3. Periodicity
                                                  • 3.1 The Periodic Table & Periodic Trends
                                                    • 3.1.1 The Periodic Table
                                                      • 3.1.2 Periodic Trends: Physical - Atomic & Ionic Radius
                                                        • 3.1.3 Periodic Trends: Physical - Ionisation Energy
                                                          • 3.1.4 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electron Affinity
                                                            • 3.1.5 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electronegativity
                                                              • 3.1.6 Periodic Trends: Chemical
                                                              • 3.2 Oxides, Group 1 & Group 17
                                                                • 3.2.1 Periodic Trends: Oxides Across a Period
                                                                  • 3.2.2 Periodic Trends: Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
                                                                    • 3.2.3 Periodic Trends: Group 17 - The Halogens
                                                                  • 4. Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                    • 4.1 Ionic & Covalent Bonding
                                                                      • 4.1.1 Forming Ions
                                                                        • 4.1.2 Ionic Compounds
                                                                          • 4.1.3 Formulae & Names of Ionic Compounds
                                                                            • 4.1.4 Covalent Bonds
                                                                              • 4.1.5 Bond Polarity
                                                                                • 4.1.6 Lewis Structures
                                                                                • 4.2 Resonance, Shapes & Giant Structures
                                                                                  • 4.2.1 Resonance Structures
                                                                                    • 4.2.2 Shapes of Molecules
                                                                                      • 4.2.3 Predicting Molecular Shapes
                                                                                        • 4.2.4 Molecular Polarity
                                                                                          • 4.2.5 Giant Covalent Structures
                                                                                          • 4.3 Intermolecular Forces & Metallic Bonding
                                                                                            • 4.3.1 Types of Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                              • 4.3.2 Deducing Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                                • 4.3.3 Properties of Covalent Compounds
                                                                                                  • 4.3.4 Metallic Bonding
                                                                                                    • 4.3.5 Trends in Melting Points of Metals
                                                                                                      • 4.3.6 Alloys & their Properties
                                                                                                    • 5. Energetics/ Thermochemistry
                                                                                                      • 5.1 Energetics
                                                                                                        • 5.1.1 Energy Changes in Reactions
                                                                                                          • 5.1.2 Standard Enthalpy Change
                                                                                                            • 5.1.3 Calorimetry
                                                                                                              • 5.1.4 Calorimetry Experiments
                                                                                                              • 5.2 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                • 5.2.1 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                  • 5.2.2 Using Hess's Law - Cycles
                                                                                                                    • 5.2.3 Using Hess's Law - Equations
                                                                                                                      • 5.2.4 Using ∆Hf° to Find Enthalpy Changes
                                                                                                                      • 5.3 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                        • 5.3.1 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                          • 5.3.2 Bond Enthalpy Calculations
                                                                                                                            • 5.3.3 Energy Profiles
                                                                                                                              • 5.3.4 Case Study: Ozone
                                                                                                                            • 6. Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                              • 6.1 Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                • 6.1.1 Collision Theory
                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.2 Rate of Reaction
                                                                                                                                    • 6.1.3 Measuring Rates
                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.4 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.5 Rate Experiments
                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.6 Explaining Rates
                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.7 Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves
                                                                                                                                              • 6.1.8 Energy Profiles & Catalysis
                                                                                                                                            • 7. Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                              • 7.1 Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                • 7.1.1 The State of Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.2 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.3 Equilibrium Constant Relationships
                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.4 The Reaction Quotient
                                                                                                                                                        • 7.1.5 Le Chatelier's Principle
                                                                                                                                                          • 7.1.6 Catalysts & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                        • 8. Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1 Theories & Reactions of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.2 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.3 Characteristic Reactions of Acids
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.4 Neutralization
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2 More About Acids
                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.1 Acid-base Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.2 pH & [H⁺]
                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.3 Interpreting pH
                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.4 The Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.5 Acid-Base Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.6 pH Meters & Universal Indicator
                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.7 Strong & Weak Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.8 Comparing Strong & Weak Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3.1 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.3.2 Effects of Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.3.3 Reducing Sulfur Oxide Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9. Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1 Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.1 Oxidation & reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.2 Deducing Oxidation Numbers
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.1.3 Oxidizing & Reducing agents
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.1.4 Naming Transition Metal Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.1.5 Half Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.1.6 The Activity Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.1.7 Redox Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1.8 The Winkler Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.9 Voltaic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.10 Electrolytic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10. Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.1 Homologous Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.2 Understanding Organic Molecules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.3 Nomenclature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.4 Organic Families - Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.1.5 Organic Families - Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.1.6 Organic Families - Alcohols & Ethers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.1.7 Organic Families - Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1.8 Organic Families - Carboxylic Acids & Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.9 Organic Families - Organic Nitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.10 3-D modelling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.11 Primary, Secondary & Tertiary atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.12 Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2 Functional Group Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.1 Alkanes - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.2 Alkanes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.3 Alkenes - Reactivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.4 Alkenes - Hydrogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.5 Alkenes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.2.6 Alkenes - Hydrohalogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.2.7 Alkenes - Hydration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2.8 Addition Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.9 Alcohols - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.10 Alcohols - Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.11 Alcohols - Esterification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.12 Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.13 Reactions of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11. Measurements & Data Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.1 Spectroscopic Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.1.1 Index of Hydrogen Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.1.2 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.1.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2 Synoptic Data Handling & Graphical Skills
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.2.1 Recording Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.2.2 Processing Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.2.3 Reducing the Impact of Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.2.4 Percentage Error
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.2.5 Drawing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.2.6 Analysing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12. HL Atomic Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.1 Electrons in Atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 12.1.1 Emission Spectra & First Ionisation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.1.2 Ionisation Energy Trends
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13. HL The Periodic Table- Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.1 Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.1.1 Transition Elements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.1.2 Variable Oxidation States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.1.3 Complex Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.1.4 Catalytic & Magnetic Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.1.5 Colour in Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.1.6 Factors Affecting Colour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14. HL Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.1 More Structures & Shapes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.1.1 Covalent Bonds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.1.2 More Lewis Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.1.3 Further VSEPR Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.1.4 Formal Charge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.2 Further Aspects of Bonding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.2.1 Delocalisation & Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.2.2 Ozone Revisited
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.2.3 Hybrid Orbitals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15. HL Energetics / Thermochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.1 Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.1.1 Key Enthalpy Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.1.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.1.3 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.1.4 Dissolution Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.1.5 Energy Changes in Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.2 Entropy & Spontaneity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.2.1 Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.2.2 Calculating Entropy Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.2.3 Gibbs Free Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.2.4 Spontaneous Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.2.5 Free Energy & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16. HL Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.1 Rate Expression & Reaction Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.1.1 Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.1.2 Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.1.3 Graphical Representations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.1.4 Rate Determining Step
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.1.5 Mechanism Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.2 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.2.1 The Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.2.2 Graphing the Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.2.3 Activation Energy from Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 17. HL Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 17.1 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.1.1 Applying the Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.1.2 Gibbs Free Energy & the Equilibrium Constant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18. HL Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.1 Further Aspects of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.1.1 Lewis Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.1.2 pH Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.1.3 Indicators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.1.4 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.1.5 Salt Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.2 Calculations Involving Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.2.1 Acid & Base Dissociation Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.2.2 Acid & Base Problem Solving
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19. HL Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.1.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.1.2 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.1.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.1.4 Quantitative Electrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.1.5 Free Energy & Eº
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.1.6 Electroplating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20. HL Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.1 Types of Organic Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.1.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.1.2 Electrophilic Addition Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.1.3 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.1.4 Reduction Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.2 Synthetic Routes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.2.1 Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.3 Stereoisomerism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.3.1 Stereoisomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.3.2 Cis-Trans & E/Z Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.3.3 Optical Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21. Measurement & Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.1 Spectroscopic Identification of Organic compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 21.1.1 High Resolution NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.1.2 X-Ray Crystallography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 21.1.3 Structure Identification Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Stewart Hird

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Stewart

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Stewart has been an enthusiastic GCSE, A Level and IB Chemistry teacher for more than 30 years in the UK as well as overseas, and has been an examiner for IB and A Level, also. As a long-standing Head of Department, Stewart brings a wealth of experience to creating Topic Questions and revision materials for Save My Exams.


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