• IB
  • IB Docs (2) Team
    Logout
  • Maths
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • Combined Science
  • English Language
  • Geography
  • Other Subjects
GCSE Maths
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast PapersPast Papers Questions
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
GCSE Biology
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Gateway Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
GCSE Chemistry
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Gateway Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
GCSE Physics
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Gateway Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
GCSE Combined Science
Edexcel Combined: Biology Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel Combined: Chemistry Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel Combined: Physics Revision NotesPast Papers
AQA Combined: Biology Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Combined: Chemistry Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Combined: Physics Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Gateway Combined: Biology Topic QuestionsRevision Notes
OCR Gateway Combined: Chemistry Revision Notes
OCR Gateway Combined: Physics Revision Notes
GCSE English Language
AQA Revision NotesPractice PapersPast Papers
Edexcel Past Papers
OCR Past Papers
GCSE Geography
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision Notes
Edexcel Topic Questions
GCSE Other Subjects
AQA English LiteratureBusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsFurther MathsGeographyHistoryPsychologySociologyStatistics
Edexcel English LiteratureBusinessComputer ScienceGeographyHistoryPsychologyStatistics
OCR English LiteratureBusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsPsychology
OCR Gateway GeographyHistory
  • Maths
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • Double Science
  • Economics
  • English Language
  • Geography
  • Other Subjects
IGCSE Maths
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast PapersBronze-Silver-Gold Questions
CIE (Extended) Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE (Core) Topic QuestionsPast Papers
IGCSE Biology
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2020-2022 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2023-2025 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
IGCSE Chemistry
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2020-2022 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2023-2025 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
IGCSE Physics
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2020-2022 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2023-2025 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
IGCSE Double Science
Edexcel Double: Biology Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel Double: Chemistry Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel Double: Physics Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
IGCSE Economics
CIE Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
IGCSE English Language
CIE Revision NotesPractice PapersPast Papers
Edexcel Past Papers
IGCSE Geography
CIE Revision NotesTopic QuestionsPast Papers
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
IGCSE Other Subjects
CIE Additional MathsEnglish LiteratureBusinessComputer ScienceHistorySociology
Edexcel English LiteratureBusinessComputer ScienceHistoryFurther Maths
  • Maths
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • English Language
  • Other Subjects
AS Maths
Edexcel Pure MathsMechanicsStatistics
AQA Pure MathsMechanicsStatistics
OCR Pure MathsMechanicsStatistics
CIE Pure 1Pure 2MechanicsProbability & Statistics 1
Edexcel IAS Pure 1Pure 2MechanicsStatistics
AS Biology
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2019-2021 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2022-2024 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel IAL Revision Notes
AS Chemistry
Edexcel Revision Notes
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Revision Notes
CIE 2019-2021 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2022-2024 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel IAL Revision Notes
AS Physics
Edexcel Revision Notes
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Revision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2019-2021 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2022-2024 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel IAL Revision Notes
AS English Language
AQA Past Papers
Edexcel Past Papers
OCR Past Papers
AS Other Subjects
AQA BusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsEnglish LiteratureFurther MathsGeographyHistoryPsychologySociology
Edexcel BusinessEconomicsEnglish LiteratureFurther MathsGeographyHistoryPsychology
OCR BusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsEnglish LiteratureFurther Maths AGeographyHistoryPsychologySociology
CIE Further Maths
  • Maths
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • English Language
  • Economics
  • Further Maths
  • Psychology
  • Other Subjects
A Level Maths
Edexcel Pure MathsMechanicsStatistics
AQA Pure MathsMechanicsStatistics
OCR Pure MathsMechanicsStatistics
CIE Pure 1Pure 3MechanicsProbability & Statistics 1Probability & Statistics 2
Edexcel IAL Pure 1Pure 2Pure 3Pure 4Mechanics 1Mechanics 2Statistics 1Statistics 2Decision 1
A Level Biology
Edexcel Topic QuestionsPast Papers
Edexcel A (SNAB) Revision Notes
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast PapersGold Questions
CIE 2019-2021 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2022-2024 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel IAL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
A Level Chemistry
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast PapersGold Questions
CIE 2019-2021 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2022-2024 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel IAL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
A Level Physics
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
OCR Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2019-2021 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE 2022-2024 Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
Edexcel IAL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
A Level English Language
AQA Past Papers
CIE Past Papers
Edexcel Past Papers
OCR Past Papers
Edexcel IAL Past Papers
A Level Economics
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Topic QuestionsPast Papers
OCR Past Papers
CIE Past Papers
A Level Further Maths
Edexcel Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
AQA Past Papers
OCR Past Papers
CIE Past Papers
Edexcel IAL Past Papers
A Level Psychology
AQA Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPast Papers
CIE Past Papers
Edexcel Past Papers
OCR Past Papers
Edexcel IAL Past Papers
A Level Other Subjects
AQA BusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsEnglish LiteratureGeographyHistorySociology
CIE BusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsEnglish LiteratureGeographySociology
Edexcel BusinessEconomics AEnglish LiteratureGeographyHistory
OCR BusinessComputer ScienceEconomicsEnglish LiteratureGeographyHistorySociology
Edexcel IAL English LiteratureGeography
CIE IAL History
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • Other Subjects
O Level Biology
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
O Level Chemistry
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
O Level Physics
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
O Level Other Subjects
CIE Additional MathsMaths D
  • Maths
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
Pre U Maths
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
Pre U Biology
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
Pre U Chemistry
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
Pre U Physics
CIE Topic QuestionsPast Papers
  • Maths
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • Economics
IB Maths
Maths: AA HL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
Maths: AI HL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
Maths: AA SL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
Maths: AI SL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
IB Biology
Biology: SL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
Biology: HL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
IB Chemistry
Chemistry: SL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
Chemistry: HL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
IB Physics
Physics: SL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
Physics: HL Topic QuestionsRevision NotesPractice Papers
IB Economics
Economics: SL Revision Notes

DP IB Chemistry: HL

Revision Notes

Home / IB / Chemistry: HL / DP / Revision Notes / 5. Energetics/ Thermochemistry / 5.1 Energetics / 5.1.4 Calorimetry Experiments


5.1.4 Calorimetry Experiments


Calorimetry Experiments

  • There are two types of calorimetry experiments you need to know for IB Chemistry:
    • Enthalpy changes of reactions in solution
    • Enthalpy changes of combustion
  • In both cases you should be able to give an outline of the experiment and be able to process experimental data using calculations or graphical methods

Enthalpy changes for reactions in solution

  • The principle of these calorimetry experiments is to carry out the reaction with an excess of one reagent and measure the temperature change over the course of a few minutes
  • The apparatus needed to carry out an enthalpy of reaction in solution calorimetry experiment is shown in the previous section 5.1.3 Calorimetry
  • For the purposes of the calculations, some assumptions are made about the experiment:
    • That the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 4.18 J g-1 K-1
    • That the density of the solution is the same as pure water, i.e. 1 g cm-3
    • The specific heat capacity of the container is ignored
    • The reaction is complete
    • There are negligible heat losses

Temperature correction graphs

  • For reactions which are not instantaneous there may be a delay before the maximum temperature is reached
  • During that delay the substances themselves may be losing heat to the surroundings, so that the true maximum temperature is never actually reached
  • To overcome this problem we can use graphical analysis to determine the maximum enthalpy change
Temperature correction graphs, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

A temperature correction graph for a metal displacement reaction between zinc and copper sulfate solution. The zinc is added after 4 minutes

The steps to make a temperature correction graph are:

  1. Take a temperature reading before adding the reactants for a few minutes to get a steady value
  2. Add the second reactant and continue recording the temperature and time
  3. Plot the graph and extrapolate the cooling part of the graph until you intersect the time at which the second reactant was added
 
  • An assumption made here is that the rate of cooling is constant
  • The analysis can also be used for endothermic reactions, but this time there will be a ‘warming’ section as the substances return to room temperature

Worked Example

Excess iron powder was added to 100.0 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3  copper(II)sulfate solution in a calorimeter. The reaction equation was as follows

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) →    FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

The maximum temperature rise was 7.5 oC. Determine the enthalpy of reaction, in kJ

Answer:

Step 1: Calculate q

q = m x c x ΔT

q = 100 g x 4.18 J g-1 K-1 x 7.5 K = - 3135 J

Step 2: Calculate the amount of CuSO4 (aq)

moles = volume in dm3 x concentration = 0.1 x 0.2 = 0.02 mol

Step 3: Calculate ΔH

ΔH = q ÷ n =  -3135 J ÷ 0.02 mol = - 156 750 J = -156.75 kJ = -160 kJ (2 sig figs)

Enthalpy of Combustion Experiments

  • The principle here is to use the heat released by a combustion reaction to increase the heat content of water
  • A typical simple calorimeter is used to measure the temperature changes to the water

Simple Calorimeter_1, downloadable IB Chemistry revision notes

A simple combustion calorimeter

  • Not all the heat produced by the combustion reaction is transferred to the water
    • Some heat is lost to the surroundings
    • Some heat is absorbed by the calorimeter
  • To minimise the heat losses the copper calorimeter should not be placed too far above the flame and a lid placed over the calorimeter
  • Shielding can be used to reduce draughts
  • In this experiment the main sources of error are
    • Heat losses
    • Incomplete combustion

Worked Example

1.023 g of propan-1-ol (M = 60.11 g mol-1) was burned in a spirit burner and used to heat 200 g of water in a copper calorimeter. The temperature of the water rose by 30 oC.Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of propan-1-ol using this data.

Answer:

Step 1: Calculate q

q = m x c x ΔT

q = 200 g x 4.18 J g-1 K-1 x 30 K = - 25 080 J

Step 2: Calculate the amount of propan-1-ol burned

moles = mass ÷ molar mass = 1.023 g ÷  60.11 g mol-1 = 0.01702 mol

Step 3: Calculate ΔH

ΔH = q ÷ n =  -25 080 J ÷ 0.01702 mol = - 1 473 560 J = -1 474 kJ = -1.5 x 103 kJ

Exam Tip

There are many potential sources of error in calorimetry experiments, both quantitative and qualitative. Determining % errors and comparing ΔH results to data book values is an important part of this topic and is covered in more detail in Topic 11 Measurement and Data Processing



  • 1. Stoichiometric Relationships
    • 1.1 Matter, Chemical Change & the Mole Concept
      • 1.1.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
        • 1.1.2 Equations
          • 1.1.3 State Changes
            • 1.1.4 The Mole Concept
              • 1.1.5 Moles-Mass Problems
                • 1.1.6 Empirical Formulae
                • 1.2 Reacting Masses & Volumes
                  • 1.2.1 Reacting Masses
                    • 1.2.2 Reaction Yields
                      • 1.2.3 Avogadro's Law & Molar Gas Volume
                        • 1.2.4 The Ideal Gas Equation
                          • 1.2.5 Gas Law Relationships
                            • 1.2.6 Real Gases
                              • 1.2.7 Standard Solutions
                                • 1.2.8 Concentration Calculations
                                  • 1.2.9 Titrations
                                • 2. Atomic Structure
                                  • 2.1 Atomic & Electronic Structure
                                    • 2.1.1 The Nuclear Atom
                                      • 2.1.2 Deducing Subatomic Particles
                                        • 2.1.3 Relative Atomic Mass Calculations
                                          • 2.1.4 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
                                            • 2.1.5 Emission Spectra
                                              • 2.1.6 Energy Levels & Sublevels
                                                • 2.1.7 Sublevels & Orbitals
                                                  • 2.1.8 Writing Electron Configurations
                                                • 3. Periodicity
                                                  • 3.1 The Periodic Table & Periodic Trends
                                                    • 3.1.1 The Periodic Table
                                                      • 3.1.2 Periodic Trends: Physical - Atomic & Ionic Radius
                                                        • 3.1.3 Periodic Trends: Physical - Ionisation Energy
                                                          • 3.1.4 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electron Affinity
                                                            • 3.1.5 Periodic Trends: Physical - Electronegativity
                                                              • 3.1.6 Periodic Trends: Chemical
                                                              • 3.2 Oxides, Group 1 & Group 17
                                                                • 3.2.1 Periodic Trends: Oxides Across a Period
                                                                  • 3.2.2 Periodic Trends: Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
                                                                    • 3.2.3 Periodic Trends: Group 17 - The Halogens
                                                                  • 4. Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                    • 4.1 Ionic & Covalent Bonding
                                                                      • 4.1.1 Forming Ions
                                                                        • 4.1.2 Ionic Compounds
                                                                          • 4.1.3 Formulae & Names of Ionic Compounds
                                                                            • 4.1.4 Covalent Bonds
                                                                              • 4.1.5 Bond Polarity
                                                                                • 4.1.6 Lewis Structures
                                                                                • 4.2 Resonance, Shapes & Giant Structures
                                                                                  • 4.2.1 Resonance Structures
                                                                                    • 4.2.2 Shapes of Molecules
                                                                                      • 4.2.3 Predicting Molecular Shapes
                                                                                        • 4.2.4 Molecular Polarity
                                                                                          • 4.2.5 Giant Covalent Structures
                                                                                          • 4.3 Intermolecular Forces & Metallic Bonding
                                                                                            • 4.3.1 Types of Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                              • 4.3.2 Deducing Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                                • 4.3.3 Properties of Covalent Compounds
                                                                                                  • 4.3.4 Metallic Bonding
                                                                                                    • 4.3.5 Trends in Melting Points of Metals
                                                                                                      • 4.3.6 Alloys & their Properties
                                                                                                    • 5. Energetics/ Thermochemistry
                                                                                                      • 5.1 Energetics
                                                                                                        • 5.1.1 Energy Changes in Reactions
                                                                                                          • 5.1.2 Standard Enthalpy Change
                                                                                                            • 5.1.3 Calorimetry
                                                                                                              • 5.1.4 Calorimetry Experiments
                                                                                                              • 5.2 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                • 5.2.1 Hess's Law
                                                                                                                  • 5.2.2 Using Hess's Law - Cycles
                                                                                                                    • 5.2.3 Using Hess's Law - Equations
                                                                                                                      • 5.2.4 Using ∆Hf° to Find Enthalpy Changes
                                                                                                                      • 5.3 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                        • 5.3.1 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                                                          • 5.3.2 Bond Enthalpy Calculations
                                                                                                                            • 5.3.3 Energy Profiles
                                                                                                                              • 5.3.4 Case Study: Ozone
                                                                                                                            • 6. Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                              • 6.1 Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                • 6.1.1 Collision Theory
                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.2 Rate of Reaction
                                                                                                                                    • 6.1.3 Measuring Rates
                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.4 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.5 Rate Experiments
                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.6 Explaining Rates
                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.7 Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves
                                                                                                                                              • 6.1.8 Energy Profiles & Catalysis
                                                                                                                                            • 7. Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                              • 7.1 Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                • 7.1.1 The State of Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.2 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.3 Equilibrium Constant Relationships
                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.4 The Reaction Quotient
                                                                                                                                                        • 7.1.5 Le Chatelier's Principle
                                                                                                                                                          • 7.1.6 Catalysts & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                        • 8. Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1 Theories & Reactions of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.2 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.3 Characteristic Reactions of Acids
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.4 Neutralization
                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2 More About Acids
                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.1 Acid-base Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.2 pH & [H⁺]
                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.3 Interpreting pH
                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.4 The Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.5 Acid-Base Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.6 pH Meters & Universal Indicator
                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.7 Strong & Weak Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.8 Comparing Strong & Weak Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3.1 Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.3.2 Effects of Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.3.3 Reducing Sulfur Oxide Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9. Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1 Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.1 Oxidation & reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.2 Deducing Oxidation Numbers
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.1.3 Oxidizing & Reducing agents
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.1.4 Naming Transition Metal Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.1.5 Half Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.1.6 The Activity Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.1.7 Redox Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.1.8 The Winkler Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.1.9 Voltaic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1.10 Electrolytic Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10. Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.1 Homologous Series
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.2 Understanding Organic Molecules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.3 Nomenclature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.4 Organic Families - Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.1.5 Organic Families - Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.1.6 Organic Families - Alcohols & Ethers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.1.7 Organic Families - Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.1.8 Organic Families - Carboxylic Acids & Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.1.9 Organic Families - Organic Nitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.1.10 3-D modelling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.1.11 Primary, Secondary & Tertiary atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1.12 Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2 Functional Group Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.1 Alkanes - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.2 Alkanes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.3 Alkenes - Reactivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.4 Alkenes - Hydrogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.5 Alkenes - Halogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.2.6 Alkenes - Hydrohalogenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.2.7 Alkenes - Hydration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.2.8 Addition Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2.9 Alcohols - Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2.10 Alcohols - Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.11 Alcohols - Esterification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.2.12 Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.2.13 Reactions of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11. Measurements & Data Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.1 Spectroscopic Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.1.1 Index of Hydrogen Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.1.2 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.1.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2 Synoptic Data Handling & Graphical Skills
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.2.1 Recording Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.2.2 Processing Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.2.3 Reducing the Impact of Errors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.2.4 Percentage Error
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.2.5 Drawing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.2.6 Analysing Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12. HL Atomic Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.1 Electrons in Atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 12.1.1 Emission Spectra & First Ionisation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.1.2 Ionisation Energy Trends
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13. HL The Periodic Table- Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.1 Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.1.1 Transition Elements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.1.2 Variable Oxidation States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.1.3 Complex Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.1.4 Catalytic & Magnetic Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.1.5 Colour in Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.1.6 Factors Affecting Colour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14. HL Chemical Bonding & Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.1 More Structures & Shapes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.1.1 Covalent Bonds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.1.2 More Lewis Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.1.3 Further VSEPR Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.1.4 Formal Charge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.2 Further Aspects of Bonding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.2.1 Delocalisation & Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.2.2 Ozone Revisited
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.2.3 Hybrid Orbitals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15. HL Energetics / Thermochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.1 Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.1.1 Key Enthalpy Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.1.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.1.3 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.1.4 Dissolution Energy Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.1.5 Energy Changes in Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.2 Entropy & Spontaneity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.2.1 Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.2.2 Calculating Entropy Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.2.3 Gibbs Free Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.2.4 Spontaneous Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.2.5 Free Energy & Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16. HL Chemical Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.1 Rate Expression & Reaction Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.1.1 Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.1.2 Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.1.3 Graphical Representations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.1.4 Rate Determining Step
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.1.5 Mechanism Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.2 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.2.1 The Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.2.2 Graphing the Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.2.3 Activation Energy from Rate Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 17. HL Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 17.1 The Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.1.1 Applying the Equilibrium Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.1.2 Gibbs Free Energy & the Equilibrium Constant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18. HL Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.1 Further Aspects of Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.1.1 Lewis Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.1.2 pH Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.1.3 Indicators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.1.4 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.1.5 Salt Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.2 Calculations Involving Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.2.1 Acid & Base Dissociation Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.2.2 Acid & Base Problem Solving
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19. HL Redox Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.1.1 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.1.2 The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.1.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.1.4 Quantitative Electrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.1.5 Free Energy & Eº
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.1.6 Electroplating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20. HL Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.1 Types of Organic Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.1.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.1.2 Electrophilic Addition Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.1.3 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.1.4 Reduction Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.2 Synthetic Routes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.2.1 Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.3 Stereoisomerism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.3.1 Stereoisomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.3.2 Cis-Trans & E/Z Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.3.3 Optical Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21. Measurement & Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.1 Spectroscopic Identification of Organic compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 21.1.1 High Resolution NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.1.2 X-Ray Crystallography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 21.1.3 Structure Identification Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Stewart Hird

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Stewart

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Stewart has been an enthusiastic GCSE, A Level and IB Chemistry teacher for more than 30 years in the UK as well as overseas, and has been an examiner for IB and A Level, also. As a long-standing Head of Department, Stewart brings a wealth of experience to creating Topic Questions and revision materials for Save My Exams.


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Save My Exams Logo
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Resources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Home Join Support

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Members
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Members Home Account Logout

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Company
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      About Us Contact Us Jobs Terms Privacy Facebook Twitter

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Quick Links
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      GCSE Revision Notes IGCSE Revision Notes A Level Revision Notes Biology Chemistry Physics Maths 2022 Advance Information

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      © IB Documents (2) Team & u/aimlesskr
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      IBO was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, the resources created by Save My Exams.