A: Materials

Outline the composition of an alloy and a composite.

Discuss, in terms of its structure, why an aluminium saucepan is impermeable to water.

State the name given to a material composed of two distinct solid phases.

Suggest why there are so many different ways in which plastics can be classified. HDPE can, for example, be categorized thermoplastic, an addition polymer, having Resin Identification Code (RIC) 2, etc.

ICP-OES/MS can be used to analyse alloys and composites. Distinguish between alloys and composites.

Civilizations are often characterized by the materials they use.

Suggest an advantage polymers have over materials from the iron age.

Outline why this type of classification is not entirely satisfactory by using magnesium diboride, MgB₂, as an example. Refer to sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline why this type of classification is not entirely satisfactory by using magnesium diboride, MgB₂, as an example. Refer to sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Identify the type of bonding in lithium hydride, using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline how alloys conduct electricity and why they are often harder than pure metals.

Conduct electricity:

Harder than pure metals:

Identify the type of bonding in lithium hydride, using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline how alloys conduct electricity and why they are often harder than pure metals.

Conduct electricity:

Harder than pure metals:

Determine the percentage of ionic bonding in alumina using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline the two distinct phases of this composite.

Outline the two distinct phases of this composite.

Identify the type of bonding in lithium hydride, using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Identify the type of bonding in lithium hydride, using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline how alloys conduct electricity and why they are often harder than pure metals.

Conduct electricity:

Harder than pure metals:

Outline how alloys conduct electricity and why they are often harder than pure metals.

Conduct electricity:

Harder than pure metals:

Identify the type of bonding in lithium hydride, using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Identify the type of bonding in lithium hydride, using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline how alloys conduct electricity and why they are often harder than pure metals.

Conduct electricity:

Harder than pure metals:

Outline how alloys conduct electricity and why they are often harder than pure metals.

Conduct electricity:

Harder than pure metals:

Determine the percentage of ionic bonding in alumina using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Determine the percentage of ionic bonding in alumina using sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline the two distinct phases of this composite.

Outline the two distinct phases of this composite.

Outline the two distinct phases of this composite.

Outline the two distinct phases of this composite.

Outline the composition of an alloy and a composite.

Outline the composition of an alloy and a composite.

Discuss, in terms of its structure, why an aluminium saucepan is impermeable to water.

State the name given to a material composed of two distinct solid phases.

Discuss, in terms of its structure, why an aluminium saucepan is impermeable to water.

State the name given to a material composed of two distinct solid phases.

Suggest why there are so many different ways in which plastics can be classified. HDPE can, for example, be categorized thermoplastic, an addition polymer, having Resin Identification Code (RIC) 2, etc.

Suggest why there are so many different ways in which plastics can be classified. HDPE can, for example, be categorized thermoplastic, an addition polymer, having Resin Identification Code (RIC) 2, etc.

ICP-OES/MS can be used to analyse alloys and composites. Distinguish between alloys and composites.

ICP-OES/MS can be used to analyse alloys and composites. Distinguish between alloys and composites.

Civilizations are often characterized by the materials they use.

Suggest an advantage polymers have over materials from the iron age.

Civilizations are often characterized by the materials they use.

Suggest an advantage polymers have over materials from the iron age.

Outline why this type of classification is not entirely satisfactory by using magnesium diboride, MgB₂, as an example. Refer to sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline why this type of classification is not entirely satisfactory by using magnesium diboride, MgB₂, as an example. Refer to sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline why this type of classification is not entirely satisfactory by using magnesium diboride, MgB₂, as an example. Refer to sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Outline why this type of classification is not entirely satisfactory by using magnesium diboride, MgB₂, as an example. Refer to sections 8 and 29 of the data booklet.

Explain how Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy could be used to determine the concentration of mercury in a sample of dental filling.

Trace amounts of metal from the catalysts used in the production of HDPE sometimes remain in the product. State a technique that could be used to measure the concentration of the metal.

Aluminium is produced by the electrolysis of a molten electrolyte containing bauxite.

Determine the mass, in g, of aluminium produced by the passage of a charge of 1.296 × 10¹³ C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

ICP-MS is a reference mode for analysis. The following correlation graphs between ICP-OES and ICP-MS were produced for yttrium and nickel.

Each y-axis shows concentrations calculated by ICP-OES; each x-axis shows concentrations for the same sample as found by ICP-MS.

The line in each graph is y = x.

Discuss the effectiveness of ICP-OES for yttrium and nickel.

Identify the purpose of each graph.

Calculate, to four significant figures, the concentration, in μg kg⁻¹, of vanadium in oil giving a signal intensity of 14 950.

An unknown antacid sample has a lead ion concentration of 0.50 μg dm^‒3.

Calculate the concentration of lead ions in the sample in mol dm^‒3.

Electrolysis is used to obtain lead from Pb²⁺ (aq) solution.

Determine the time, in hours, required to produce 0.0500 mol lead using a current (I) of 1.34 A. Use section 2 of the data booklet and the equation, charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t, in seconds).

Calculate the concentration of lead ions in the sample in mol dm^‒3.

Electrolysis is used to obtain lead from Pb²⁺ (aq) solution.

Determine the time, in hours, required to produce 0.0500 mol lead using a current (I) of 1.34 A. Use section 2 of the data booklet and the equation, charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t, in seconds).

Identify the colour of the emission spectrum of lithium using section 17 of the data booklet.

Suggest why ICP-OES does not give good quantitative results for distinguishing ⁶Li from naturally occurring lithium.

Suggest a better method.

Lithium is obtained by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride. Calculate the time, in seconds, taken to deposit 0.694 g Li using a current of 2.00 A.

Q (charge) = I (current) × t (time)

Determine the mass of aluminium, in g, that could be extracted from an appropriate solution by a charge of 48 250 C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Once extracted, the purity of the metal can be assessed using ICP-MS. Suggest two advantages of using plasma technology rather than regular mass spectrometry.

Explain why lithium is paramagnetic while lithium hydride is diamagnetic by referring to electron configurations.

Suggest why ICP-OES does not give good quantitative results for distinguishing ⁶Li from naturally occurring lithium.

Suggest a better method.

Lithium is obtained by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride. Calculate the time, in seconds, taken to deposit 0.694 g Li using a current of 2.00 A.

Q (charge) = I (current) × t (time)

Determine the mass of aluminium, in g, that could be extracted from an appropriate solution by a charge of 48250 C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Once extracted, the purity of the metal can be assessed using ICP-MS. Suggest two advantages of using plasma technology rather than regular mass spectrometry.

Discuss why different methods of reduction are needed to extract metals.

Write half-equations for the electrolysis of molten alumina using graphite electrodes, deducing the state symbols of the products.

Anode (positive electrode):

Cathode (negative electrode):

Pure magnesium needed for making alloys can be obtained by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride.

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2020.

Write the half-equations for the reactions occurring in this electrolysis.

Calculate the theoretical mass of magnesium obtained if a current of $3.00 \mathrm{A}$ is used for $10.0$ hours. Use charge $\left(Q\right)=current(I )\times time(t )$ and section 2 of the data booklet

Suggest a gas which should be continuously passed over the molten magnesium in the electrolytic cell.

Alloying metals changes their properties. Suggest one property of magnesium that could be improved by making a magnesium–CNT alloy.

Pure magnesium needed for making alloys can be obtained by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride.

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2020

Calculate the theoretical mass of magnesium obtained if a current of 3.00 A is used for $10.0$ hours. Use charge :(Q) = current (I) × time (t)  and section 2 of the data booklet.

Suggest a gas which should be continuously passed over the molten magnesium in the electrolytic cell.

Identify the colour of the emission spectrum of lithium using section 17 of the data booklet.

Suggest why ICP-OES does not give good quantitative results for distinguishing ⁶Li from naturally occurring lithium.

Suggest a better method.

Lithium is obtained by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride. Calculate the time, in seconds, taken to deposit 0.694 g Li using a current of 2.00 A.

Q (charge) = I (current) × t (time)

Identify the colour of the emission spectrum of lithium using section 17 of the data booklet.

Suggest why ICP-OES does not give good quantitative results for distinguishing ⁶Li from naturally occurring lithium.

Suggest a better method.

Lithium is obtained by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride. Calculate the time, in seconds, taken to deposit 0.694 g Li using a current of 2.00 A.

Q (charge) = I (current) × t (time)

Determine the mass of aluminium, in g, that could be extracted from an appropriate solution by a charge of 48 250 C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Once extracted, the purity of the metal can be assessed using ICP-MS. Suggest two advantages of using plasma technology rather than regular mass spectrometry.

Determine the mass of aluminium, in g, that could be extracted from an appropriate solution by a charge of 48 250 C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Once extracted, the purity of the metal can be assessed using ICP-MS. Suggest two advantages of using plasma technology rather than regular mass spectrometry.

Explain why lithium is paramagnetic while lithium hydride is diamagnetic by referring to electron configurations.

Suggest why ICP-OES does not give good quantitative results for distinguishing ⁶Li from naturally occurring lithium.

Suggest a better method.

Lithium is obtained by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride. Calculate the time, in seconds, taken to deposit 0.694 g Li using a current of 2.00 A.

Q (charge) = I (current) × t (time)

Explain why lithium is paramagnetic while lithium hydride is diamagnetic by referring to electron configurations.

Suggest why ICP-OES does not give good quantitative results for distinguishing ⁶Li from naturally occurring lithium.

Suggest a better method.

Lithium is obtained by electrolysis of molten lithium chloride. Calculate the time, in seconds, taken to deposit 0.694 g Li using a current of 2.00 A.

Q (charge) = I (current) × t (time)

Determine the mass of aluminium, in g, that could be extracted from an appropriate solution by a charge of 48250 C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Once extracted, the purity of the metal can be assessed using ICP-MS. Suggest two advantages of using plasma technology rather than regular mass spectrometry.

Determine the mass of aluminium, in g, that could be extracted from an appropriate solution by a charge of 48250 C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Once extracted, the purity of the metal can be assessed using ICP-MS. Suggest two advantages of using plasma technology rather than regular mass spectrometry.

Discuss why different methods of reduction are needed to extract metals.

Write half-equations for the electrolysis of molten alumina using graphite electrodes, deducing the state symbols of the products.

Anode (positive electrode):

Cathode (negative electrode):

Discuss why different methods of reduction are needed to extract metals.

Write half-equations for the electrolysis of molten alumina using graphite electrodes, deducing the state symbols of the products.

Anode (positive electrode):

Cathode (negative electrode):

Pure magnesium needed for making alloys can be obtained by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride.

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2020.

Write the half-equations for the reactions occurring in this electrolysis.

Calculate the theoretical mass of magnesium obtained if a current of $3.00 \mathrm{A}$ is used for $10.0$ hours. Use charge $\left(Q\right)=current(I )\times time(t )$ and section 2 of the data booklet

Suggest a gas which should be continuously passed over the molten magnesium in the electrolytic cell.

Pure magnesium needed for making alloys can be obtained by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride.

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2020.

Write the half-equations for the reactions occurring in this electrolysis.

Calculate the theoretical mass of magnesium obtained if a current of $3.00 \mathrm{A}$ is used for $10.0$ hours. Use charge $\left(Q\right)=current(I )\times time(t )$ and section 2 of the data booklet

Suggest a gas which should be continuously passed over the molten magnesium in the electrolytic cell.

Alloying metals changes their properties. Suggest one property of magnesium that could be improved by making a magnesium–CNT alloy.

Pure magnesium needed for making alloys can be obtained by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride.

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2020

Calculate the theoretical mass of magnesium obtained if a current of 3.00 A is used for $10.0$ hours. Use charge :(Q) = current (I) × time (t)  and section 2 of the data booklet.

Suggest a gas which should be continuously passed over the molten magnesium in the electrolytic cell.

Alloying metals changes their properties. Suggest one property of magnesium that could be improved by making a magnesium–CNT alloy.

Pure magnesium needed for making alloys can be obtained by electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride.

© International Baccalaureate Organization 2020

Calculate the theoretical mass of magnesium obtained if a current of 3.00 A is used for $10.0$ hours. Use charge :(Q) = current (I) × time (t)  and section 2 of the data booklet.

Suggest a gas which should be continuously passed over the molten magnesium in the electrolytic cell.

Explain how Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy could be used to determine the concentration of mercury in a sample of dental filling.

Explain how Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy could be used to determine the concentration of mercury in a sample of dental filling.

Trace amounts of metal from the catalysts used in the production of HDPE sometimes remain in the product. State a technique that could be used to measure the concentration of the metal.

Trace amounts of metal from the catalysts used in the production of HDPE sometimes remain in the product. State a technique that could be used to measure the concentration of the metal.

Aluminium is produced by the electrolysis of a molten electrolyte containing bauxite.

Determine the mass, in g, of aluminium produced by the passage of a charge of 1.296 × 10¹³ C. Use sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

ICP-MS is a reference mode for analysis. The following correlation graphs between ICP-OES and ICP-MS were produced for yttrium and nickel.

Each y-axis shows concentrations calculated by ICP-OES; each x-axis shows concentrations for the same sample as found by ICP-MS.

The line in each graph is y = x.

Discuss the effectiveness of ICP-OES for yttrium and nickel.

Identify the purpose of each graph.

Calculate, to four significant figures, the concentration, in μg kg⁻¹, of vanadium in oil giving a signal intensity of 14 950.

ICP-MS is a reference mode for analysis. The following correlation graphs between ICP-OES and ICP-MS were produced for yttrium and nickel.

Each y-axis shows concentrations calculated by ICP-OES; each x-axis shows concentrations for the same sample as found by ICP-MS.

The line in each graph is y = x.

Discuss the effectiveness of ICP-OES for yttrium and nickel.

Identify the purpose of each graph.

Calculate, to four significant figures, the concentration, in μg kg⁻¹, of vanadium in oil giving a signal intensity of 14 950.

An unknown antacid sample has a lead ion concentration of 0.50 μg dm^‒3.

Calculate the concentration of lead ions in the sample in mol dm^‒3.

Electrolysis is used to obtain lead from Pb²⁺ (aq) solution.

Determine the time, in hours, required to produce 0.0500 mol lead using a current (I) of 1.34 A. Use section 2 of the data booklet and the equation, charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t, in seconds).

An unknown antacid sample has a lead ion concentration of 0.50 μg dm^‒3.

Calculate the concentration of lead ions in the sample in mol dm^‒3.

Electrolysis is used to obtain lead from Pb²⁺ (aq) solution.

Determine the time, in hours, required to produce 0.0500 mol lead using a current (I) of 1.34 A. Use section 2 of the data booklet and the equation, charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t, in seconds).

Calculate the concentration of lead ions in the sample in mol dm^‒3.

Electrolysis is used to obtain lead from Pb²⁺ (aq) solution.

Determine the time, in hours, required to produce 0.0500 mol lead using a current (I) of 1.34 A. Use section 2 of the data booklet and the equation, charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t, in seconds).

Calculate the concentration of lead ions in the sample in mol dm^‒3.

Electrolysis is used to obtain lead from Pb²⁺ (aq) solution.

Determine the time, in hours, required to produce 0.0500 mol lead using a current (I) of 1.34 A. Use section 2 of the data booklet and the equation, charge (Q) = current (I) × time (t, in seconds).

Catalysts can take many forms and are used in many industrial processes.

Suggest two reasons why it might be worth using a more expensive catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction.

The production of HDPE involves the use of homogeneous catalysts. Outline how homogeneous catalysts reduce the activation energy of reactions.

Vanadium(V) oxide is used as the catalyst in the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.

SO₂(g) + V₂O₅(s) → SO₃(g) + 2VO₂(s)

$\frac{1}{2}$O₂(g) + 2VO₂(s) → V₂O₅(s)

Outline how vanadium(V) oxide acts as a catalyst.

Outline two differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.

Explain the action of metals as heterogeneous catalysts.

Outline two differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.

Explain the action of metals as heterogeneous catalysts.

Describe how a heterogeneous catalyst provides an alternative pathway for a reaction.

Nanotubes are used to support the active material in nanocatalysts.

Explain why oxygen cannot be used for the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) preparation of carbon nanotubes.

Outline two differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.

Outline two differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.

Explain the action of metals as heterogeneous catalysts.

Explain the action of metals as heterogeneous catalysts.

Outline two differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.

Outline two differences between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.

Explain the action of metals as heterogeneous catalysts.

Explain the action of metals as heterogeneous catalysts.

Describe how a heterogeneous catalyst provides an alternative pathway for a reaction.

Nanotubes are used to support the active material in nanocatalysts.

Explain why oxygen cannot be used for the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) preparation of carbon nanotubes.

Describe how a heterogeneous catalyst provides an alternative pathway for a reaction.

Nanotubes are used to support the active material in nanocatalysts.

Explain why oxygen cannot be used for the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) preparation of carbon nanotubes.

Catalysts can take many forms and are used in many industrial processes.

Suggest two reasons why it might be worth using a more expensive catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction.

The production of HDPE involves the use of homogeneous catalysts. Outline how homogeneous catalysts reduce the activation energy of reactions.

The production of HDPE involves the use of homogeneous catalysts. Outline how homogeneous catalysts reduce the activation energy of reactions.

Vanadium(V) oxide is used as the catalyst in the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.

SO₂(g) + V₂O₅(s) → SO₃(g) + 2VO₂(s)

$\frac{1}{2}$O₂(g) + 2VO₂(s) → V₂O₅(s)

Outline how vanadium(V) oxide acts as a catalyst.

Vanadium(V) oxide is used as the catalyst in the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.

SO₂(g) + V₂O₅(s) → SO₃(g) + 2VO₂(s)

$\frac{1}{2}$O₂(g) + 2VO₂(s) → V₂O₅(s)

Outline how vanadium(V) oxide acts as a catalyst.

Outline two properties a substance should have to be used as liquid-crystal in a liquid-crystal display.

MWCNT are very small in size and can greatly increase switching speeds in a liquid crystal allowing the liquid crystal to change orientation quickly.

Discuss two other properties a substance should have to be suitable for use in liquid crystal displays.

State the property of carbon nanotubes that enables them to form a nematic liquid crystal phase.

Both of these are thermoplastic polymers. Outline what this term means.

Discuss three properties a substance should have to be suitable for use in liquid crystal displays.

Label with an asterisk, *, the chiral carbon atom.

Explain the effects of very low and high temperatures on the liquid-crystal behaviour of this molecule.

Low temperature:

High temperature:

Describe the characteristics of the nematic liquid crystal phase.

Shape of molecules:

Distribution: 

State the name of the functional group which allows the molecule to be responsive to applied electric fields.

Explain the effects of very low and high temperatures on the liquid-crystal behaviour of this molecule.

Low temperature: 

High temperature:

Describe the characteristics of the nematic liquid crystal phase and the effect that an electric field has on it.

Shape of molecules:

Distribution:

Effect of electric field:

Label with an asterisk, *, the chiral carbon atom.

Explain the effects of very low and high temperatures on the liquid-crystal behaviour of this molecule.

Low temperature:

High temperature:

Label with an asterisk, *, the chiral carbon atom.

Explain the effects of very low and high temperatures on the liquid-crystal behaviour of this molecule.

Low temperature:

High temperature:

Describe the characteristics of the nematic liquid crystal phase.

Shape of molecules:

Distribution: 

State the name of the functional group which allows the molecule to be responsive to applied electric fields.

Explain the effects of very low and high temperatures on the liquid-crystal behaviour of this molecule.

Low temperature: 

High temperature:

State the name of the functional group which allows the molecule to be responsive to applied electric fields.

Explain the effects of very low and high temperatures on the liquid-crystal behaviour of this molecule.

Low temperature: 

High temperature:

Describe the characteristics of the nematic liquid crystal phase and the effect that an electric field has on it.

Shape of molecules:

Distribution:

Effect of electric field:

Outline two properties a substance should have to be used as liquid-crystal in a liquid-crystal display.

Outline two properties a substance should have to be used as liquid-crystal in a liquid-crystal display.

MWCNT are very small in size and can greatly increase switching speeds in a liquid crystal allowing the liquid crystal to change orientation quickly.

Discuss two other properties a substance should have to be suitable for use in liquid crystal displays.

MWCNT are very small in size and can greatly increase switching speeds in a liquid crystal allowing the liquid crystal to change orientation quickly.

Discuss two other properties a substance should have to be suitable for use in liquid crystal displays.

State the property of carbon nanotubes that enables them to form a nematic liquid crystal phase.

State the property of carbon nanotubes that enables them to form a nematic liquid crystal phase.

Both of these are thermoplastic polymers. Outline what this term means.

Both of these are thermoplastic polymers. Outline what this term means.

Discuss three properties a substance should have to be suitable for use in liquid crystal displays.

Discuss three properties a substance should have to be suitable for use in liquid crystal displays.

Describe how the structures of LDPE and HDPE affect one mechanical property of the plastics.

Deduce, giving a reason, whether the atom economy of a condensation polymerization, such as this, would be greater or less than an addition polymerization, such as the formation of HDPE.

Both of these are thermoplastic polymers. Outline what this term means.

Compare and contrast the structures of HDPE and LDPE.

State one way in which a physical property of HDPE, other than density, differs from that of LDPE as a result of this structural difference.

Sketch four repeating units of the polymer to show atactic and isotactic polypropene.

Structures of poly(methyl acrylate), PMA, and Bakelite^® are shown.

Suggest, giving reasons, which is the thermoplastic polymer and which is the thermosetting polymer.

Structures of poly(methyl acrylate), PMA, and Bakelite^® are shown.

Suggest, giving reasons, which is the thermoplastic polymer and which is the thermosetting polymer.

Suggest, giving a reason, how elastomers used for the tyre tread can increase the traction between the tyre and the road.

Draw a section of isotactic polychloroethene (polyvinylchloride, PVC) showing all the atoms and all the bonds of four monomer units.

Explain how plasticizers affect the properties of plastics.

Suggest, giving a reason, how elastomers used for the tyre tread can increase the traction between the tyre and the road.

Draw a section of isotactic polychloroethene (polyvinylchloride, PVC) showing all the atoms and all the bonds of four monomer units.

Explain how plasticizers affect the properties of plastics.

Draw a section of an isotactic polypropene polymer chain containing four repeating units.

Suggest, giving a reason, how elastomers used for the tyre tread can increase the traction between the tyre and the road.

Suggest, giving a reason, how elastomers used for the tyre tread can increase the traction between the tyre and the road.

Draw a section of isotactic polychloroethene (polyvinylchloride, PVC) showing all the atoms and all the bonds of four monomer units.

Explain how plasticizers affect the properties of plastics.

Draw a section of isotactic polychloroethene (polyvinylchloride, PVC) showing all the atoms and all the bonds of four monomer units.

Explain how plasticizers affect the properties of plastics.

Suggest, giving a reason, how elastomers used for the tyre tread can increase the traction between the tyre and the road.

Suggest, giving a reason, how elastomers used for the tyre tread can increase the traction between the tyre and the road.

Draw a section of isotactic polychloroethene (polyvinylchloride, PVC) showing all the atoms and all the bonds of four monomer units.

Explain how plasticizers affect the properties of plastics.

Draw a section of isotactic polychloroethene (polyvinylchloride, PVC) showing all the atoms and all the bonds of four monomer units.

Explain how plasticizers affect the properties of plastics.

Draw a section of an isotactic polypropene polymer chain containing four repeating units.

Draw a section of an isotactic polypropene polymer chain containing four repeating units.

Describe how the structures of LDPE and HDPE affect one mechanical property of the plastics.

Describe how the structures of LDPE and HDPE affect one mechanical property of the plastics.

Deduce, giving a reason, whether the atom economy of a condensation polymerization, such as this, would be greater or less than an addition polymerization, such as the formation of HDPE.

Deduce, giving a reason, whether the atom economy of a condensation polymerization, such as this, would be greater or less than an addition polymerization, such as the formation of HDPE.

Both of these are thermoplastic polymers. Outline what this term means.

Compare and contrast the structures of HDPE and LDPE.

State one way in which a physical property of HDPE, other than density, differs from that of LDPE as a result of this structural difference.

Both of these are thermoplastic polymers. Outline what this term means.

Compare and contrast the structures of HDPE and LDPE.

State one way in which a physical property of HDPE, other than density, differs from that of LDPE as a result of this structural difference.

Sketch four repeating units of the polymer to show atactic and isotactic polypropene.

Sketch four repeating units of the polymer to show atactic and isotactic polypropene.

Structures of poly(methyl acrylate), PMA, and Bakelite^® are shown.

Suggest, giving reasons, which is the thermoplastic polymer and which is the thermosetting polymer.

Structures of poly(methyl acrylate), PMA, and Bakelite^® are shown.

Suggest, giving reasons, which is the thermoplastic polymer and which is the thermosetting polymer.

Structures of poly(methyl acrylate), PMA, and Bakelite^® are shown.

Suggest, giving reasons, which is the thermoplastic polymer and which is the thermosetting polymer.

Structures of poly(methyl acrylate), PMA, and Bakelite^® are shown.

Suggest, giving reasons, which is the thermoplastic polymer and which is the thermosetting polymer.

State equations for the formation of iron nanoparticles and carbon atoms from Fe(CO)₅ in the HIPCO process.

State one physical property of HDPE that will be affected by the incorporation of carbon nanotubes.

Describe how carbon nanotubes are produced by chemical vapour deposition (CVD).

State the source of carbon for MWCNT produced by arc discharge and by CVD.

Arc discharge, consisting of two inert metal electrodes in a liquid solvent, is one method of producing carbon nanotubes (CNTs).

Predict, giving a reason, the electrode at which the solvent cyclohexane, C₆H₁₂, will decompose to form CNTs.

Describe the structure and bonding of a carbon nanotube.

Structure:

Bonding:

Suggest one application for carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes are added to metals to increase tensile strength.

Write an equation for the formation of carbon nanotubes from carbon monoxide.

Describe the structure and bonding of a carbon nanotube.

Structure:

Bonding:

Suggest one application for carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes are added to metals to increase tensile strength.

Write an equation for the formation of carbon nanotubes from carbon monoxide.

Nanotubes are used to support the active material in nanocatalysts.

Explain why oxygen cannot be used for the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) preparation of carbon nanotubes.

Describe the structure and bonding of a carbon nanotube.

Structure:

Bonding:

Suggest one application for carbon nanotubes.

Describe the structure and bonding of a carbon nanotube.

Structure:

Bonding:

Suggest one application for carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes are added to metals to increase tensile strength.

Write an equation for the formation of carbon nanotubes from carbon monoxide.

Carbon nanotubes are added to metals to increase tensile strength.

Write an equation for the formation of carbon nanotubes from carbon monoxide.

Describe the structure and bonding of a carbon nanotube.

Structure:

Bonding:

Suggest one application for carbon nanotubes.

Describe the structure and bonding of a carbon nanotube.

Structure:

Bonding:

Suggest one application for carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes are added to metals to increase tensile strength.

Write an equation for the formation of carbon nanotubes from carbon monoxide.

Carbon nanotubes are added to metals to increase tensile strength.

Write an equation for the formation of carbon nanotubes from carbon monoxide.

Nanotubes are used to support the active material in nanocatalysts.

Explain why oxygen cannot be used for the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) preparation of carbon nanotubes.

Nanotubes are used to support the active material in nanocatalysts.

Explain why oxygen cannot be used for the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) preparation of carbon nanotubes.

State equations for the formation of iron nanoparticles and carbon atoms from Fe(CO)₅ in the HIPCO process.

State equations for the formation of iron nanoparticles and carbon atoms from Fe(CO)₅ in the HIPCO process.

State one physical property of HDPE that will be affected by the incorporation of carbon nanotubes.

Describe how carbon nanotubes are produced by chemical vapour deposition (CVD).

State one physical property of HDPE that will be affected by the incorporation of carbon nanotubes.

Describe how carbon nanotubes are produced by chemical vapour deposition (CVD).

State the source of carbon for MWCNT produced by arc discharge and by CVD.

State the source of carbon for MWCNT produced by arc discharge and by CVD.

Arc discharge, consisting of two inert metal electrodes in a liquid solvent, is one method of producing carbon nanotubes (CNTs).

Predict, giving a reason, the electrode at which the solvent cyclohexane, C₆H₁₂, will decompose to form CNTs.

Arc discharge, consisting of two inert metal electrodes in a liquid solvent, is one method of producing carbon nanotubes (CNTs).

Predict, giving a reason, the electrode at which the solvent cyclohexane, C₆H₁₂, will decompose to form CNTs.

One of the two infrared (IR) spectra is that of polyethene and the other of polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE).

Deduce, with a reason, which spectrum is that of PTFE. Infrared data is given in section 26 of the data booklet.

Many plastics used to be incinerated. Deduce an equation for the complete combustion of two repeating units of PVC, (–C₂H₃Cl–)₂.

Suggest two of the major obstacles, other than collection and economic factors, which have to be overcome in plastic recycling.

State the chemical reason why plastics do not degrade easily.

Compare two ways in which recycling differs from reusing plastics.

In an incomplete combustion of the polyvinyl chloride, PVC, it was found that hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water vapour were released.

Formulate an equation for this reaction using the formula of the PVC repeating unit.

Repeating units of several polymers are listed.

The infrared (IR) spectrum of one of these polymers is shown.

Deduce, giving a reason, the name of this polymer and its Resin Identification Code (RIC), using sections 26 and 30 in the data booklet.

Tyre fires emit trace quantities of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin.

Outline, using section 31 of the data booklet, why polychlorinated dibenzofuran is not classed chemically as a dioxin but considered “dioxin-like”.

Suggest why the addition of plasticizers is controversial.

Tyre fires emit trace quantities of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin.

Outline, using section 31 of the data booklet, why polychlorinated dibenzofuran is not classed chemically as a dioxin but considered “dioxin-like”.

The trace quantities of dioxins from tyre fires are rarely inhaled and instead settle on the ground.

Describe why this is a health concern.

Identify a hazardous product of the incineration of polychloroethene.

Suggest why the addition of plasticizers is controversial.

Tyre fires emit trace quantities of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin.

Outline, using section 31 of the data booklet, why polychlorinated dibenzofuran is not classed chemically as a dioxin but considered “dioxin-like”.

Tyre fires emit trace quantities of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin.

Outline, using section 31 of the data booklet, why polychlorinated dibenzofuran is not classed chemically as a dioxin but considered “dioxin-like”.

Suggest why the addition of plasticizers is controversial.

Suggest why the addition of plasticizers is controversial.

Tyre fires emit trace quantities of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin.

Outline, using section 31 of the data booklet, why polychlorinated dibenzofuran is not classed chemically as a dioxin but considered “dioxin-like”.

The trace quantities of dioxins from tyre fires are rarely inhaled and instead settle on the ground.

Describe why this is a health concern.

Tyre fires emit trace quantities of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin.

Outline, using section 31 of the data booklet, why polychlorinated dibenzofuran is not classed chemically as a dioxin but considered “dioxin-like”.

The trace quantities of dioxins from tyre fires are rarely inhaled and instead settle on the ground.

Describe why this is a health concern.

Identify a hazardous product of the incineration of polychloroethene.

Suggest why the addition of plasticizers is controversial.

Identify a hazardous product of the incineration of polychloroethene.

Suggest why the addition of plasticizers is controversial.

One of the two infrared (IR) spectra is that of polyethene and the other of polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE).

Deduce, with a reason, which spectrum is that of PTFE. Infrared data is given in section 26 of the data booklet.

Many plastics used to be incinerated. Deduce an equation for the complete combustion of two repeating units of PVC, (–C₂H₃Cl–)₂.

One of the two infrared (IR) spectra is that of polyethene and the other of polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE).

Deduce, with a reason, which spectrum is that of PTFE. Infrared data is given in section 26 of the data booklet.

Many plastics used to be incinerated. Deduce an equation for the complete combustion of two repeating units of PVC, (–C₂H₃Cl–)₂.

Suggest two of the major obstacles, other than collection and economic factors, which have to be overcome in plastic recycling.

Suggest two of the major obstacles, other than collection and economic factors, which have to be overcome in plastic recycling.

State the chemical reason why plastics do not degrade easily.

Compare two ways in which recycling differs from reusing plastics.

State the chemical reason why plastics do not degrade easily.

Compare two ways in which recycling differs from reusing plastics.

In an incomplete combustion of the polyvinyl chloride, PVC, it was found that hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water vapour were released.

Formulate an equation for this reaction using the formula of the PVC repeating unit.

Repeating units of several polymers are listed.

The infrared (IR) spectrum of one of these polymers is shown.

Deduce, giving a reason, the name of this polymer and its Resin Identification Code (RIC), using sections 26 and 30 in the data booklet.

In an incomplete combustion of the polyvinyl chloride, PVC, it was found that hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water vapour were released.

Formulate an equation for this reaction using the formula of the PVC repeating unit.

Repeating units of several polymers are listed.

The infrared (IR) spectrum of one of these polymers is shown.

Deduce, giving a reason, the name of this polymer and its Resin Identification Code (RIC), using sections 26 and 30 in the data booklet.

Explain why Type 2 superconductors are generally more useful than Type 1.

Calculate the total number of cobalt atoms within its unit cell.

The atomic radius, r, of cobalt is 1.18 × 10^–8 cm. Determine the edge length, in cm, of the unit cell, a, using the second diagram.

Determine a value for the density of cobalt, in g cm^–3, using data from sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet and your answers from (a) and (b) (i).

If you did not obtain an answer to (b) (i), use 3.00 × 10^–8 cm but this is not the correct answer.

The diagram illustrates the crystal structure of aluminium metal with the unit cell indicated. Outline the significance of the unit cell.

When X-rays of wavelength 0.154 nm are directed at a crystal of aluminium, the first order diffraction pattern is observed at 18°. Determine the separation of layers of aluminium atoms in the crystal, in m, using section 1 of the data booklet.

Deduce what the shape of the graph indicates about aluminium.

Outline why the resistance of aluminium increases above 1.2 K.

Deduce the number of atoms per unit cell in vanadium.

Calculate the expected first order diffraction pattern angle, in degrees, if x-rays of wavelength 150 pm are directed at a crystal of vanadium. Assume the edge length of the crystal to be the same as separation of layers of vanadium atoms found by x-ray diffraction. Use section 1 of the data booklet.

Calculate the average mass, in g, of a vanadium atom by using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Determine the volume, in cm³, of a vanadium unit cell.

Determine the density, in g cm⁻³, of vanadium by using your answers to (a)(i), (a)(iii) and (a)(iv).

Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell of gold, showing your working.

The edge length of the gold unit cell is 4.08 × 10^‒8 cm.

Determine the density of gold in g cm^‒3, using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Lithium has shown some superconductive properties when doped into graphene or when under high pressure. Under high pressure, however, the Meissner effect is absent.

Describe the Meissner effect.

At very low temperatures, lithium atoms enhance the phonon binding of electrons in graphene suggesting the formation of Cooper pairs.

Explain how Cooper pairs are formed.

Lithium forms a crystalline lattice with the unit cell structure shown below.

X-ray diffraction shows that the length of the edge of the unit cell is 3.51 × 10⁻⁸ cm.

Determine the density of lithium, in g cm⁻³, using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

State the number of atoms in the unit cell.

Determine the density of calcium, in g cm⁻³, using section 2 of the data booklet.

Ar = 40.08; metallic radius (r) = 1.97 × 10⁻¹⁰ m

State what is meant by a superconductor.

Outline one approach to controlling industrial emissions of carbon dioxide.

X-ray crystallography of a metal crystal produces a diffraction pattern of bright spots.

Using X-rays of wavelength 1.54 × 10⁻¹⁰ m, the first bright spots were produced at an angle θ of 22.3° from the centre.

Calculate the separation between planes of atoms in the lattice, in meters, using section 1 of the data booklet.

Explain the role of electrons in superconducting materials in terms of the Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory.

Lithium has shown some superconductive properties when doped into graphene or when under high pressure. Under high pressure, however, the Meissner effect is absent.

Describe the Meissner effect.

At very low temperatures, lithium atoms enhance the phonon binding of electrons in graphene suggesting the formation of Cooper pairs.

Explain how Cooper pairs are formed.

Lithium forms a crystalline lattice with the unit cell structure shown below.

X-ray diffraction shows that the length of the edge of the unit cell is 3.51 × 10⁻⁸ cm.

Determine the density of lithium, in g cm⁻³, using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Lithium has shown some superconductive properties when doped into graphene or when under high pressure. Under high pressure, however, the Meissner effect is absent.

Describe the Meissner effect.

At very low temperatures, lithium atoms enhance the phonon binding of electrons in graphene suggesting the formation of Cooper pairs.

Explain how Cooper pairs are formed.

Lithium forms a crystalline lattice with the unit cell structure shown below.

X-ray diffraction shows that the length of the edge of the unit cell is 3.51 × 10⁻⁸ cm.

Determine the density of lithium, in g cm⁻³, using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

State the number of atoms in the unit cell.

Determine the density of calcium, in g cm⁻³, using section 2 of the data booklet.

Ar = 40.08; metallic radius (r) = 1.97 × 10⁻¹⁰ m

State the number of atoms in the unit cell.

Determine the density of calcium, in g cm⁻³, using section 2 of the data booklet.

Ar = 40.08; metallic radius (r) = 1.97 × 10⁻¹⁰ m

State what is meant by a superconductor.

State what is meant by a superconductor.

Outline one approach to controlling industrial emissions of carbon dioxide.

Outline one approach to controlling industrial emissions of carbon dioxide.

X-ray crystallography of a metal crystal produces a diffraction pattern of bright spots.

Using X-rays of wavelength 1.54 × 10⁻¹⁰ m, the first bright spots were produced at an angle θ of 22.3° from the centre.

Calculate the separation between planes of atoms in the lattice, in meters, using section 1 of the data booklet.

Explain the role of electrons in superconducting materials in terms of the Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory.

Explain the role of electrons in superconducting materials in terms of the Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory.

Explain why Type 2 superconductors are generally more useful than Type 1.

Explain why Type 2 superconductors are generally more useful than Type 1.

Calculate the total number of cobalt atoms within its unit cell.

The atomic radius, r, of cobalt is 1.18 × 10^–8 cm. Determine the edge length, in cm, of the unit cell, a, using the second diagram.

Determine a value for the density of cobalt, in g cm^–3, using data from sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet and your answers from (a) and (b) (i).

If you did not obtain an answer to (b) (i), use 3.00 × 10^–8 cm but this is not the correct answer.

Calculate the total number of cobalt atoms within its unit cell.

The atomic radius, r, of cobalt is 1.18 × 10^–8 cm. Determine the edge length, in cm, of the unit cell, a, using the second diagram.

Determine a value for the density of cobalt, in g cm^–3, using data from sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet and your answers from (a) and (b) (i).

If you did not obtain an answer to (b) (i), use 3.00 × 10^–8 cm but this is not the correct answer.

The diagram illustrates the crystal structure of aluminium metal with the unit cell indicated. Outline the significance of the unit cell.

When X-rays of wavelength 0.154 nm are directed at a crystal of aluminium, the first order diffraction pattern is observed at 18°. Determine the separation of layers of aluminium atoms in the crystal, in m, using section 1 of the data booklet.

Deduce what the shape of the graph indicates about aluminium.

Outline why the resistance of aluminium increases above 1.2 K.

The diagram illustrates the crystal structure of aluminium metal with the unit cell indicated. Outline the significance of the unit cell.

When X-rays of wavelength 0.154 nm are directed at a crystal of aluminium, the first order diffraction pattern is observed at 18°. Determine the separation of layers of aluminium atoms in the crystal, in m, using section 1 of the data booklet.

Deduce what the shape of the graph indicates about aluminium.

Outline why the resistance of aluminium increases above 1.2 K.

Deduce the number of atoms per unit cell in vanadium.

Calculate the expected first order diffraction pattern angle, in degrees, if x-rays of wavelength 150 pm are directed at a crystal of vanadium. Assume the edge length of the crystal to be the same as separation of layers of vanadium atoms found by x-ray diffraction. Use section 1 of the data booklet.

Calculate the average mass, in g, of a vanadium atom by using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Determine the volume, in cm³, of a vanadium unit cell.

Determine the density, in g cm⁻³, of vanadium by using your answers to (a)(i), (a)(iii) and (a)(iv).

Deduce the number of atoms per unit cell in vanadium.

Calculate the expected first order diffraction pattern angle, in degrees, if x-rays of wavelength 150 pm are directed at a crystal of vanadium. Assume the edge length of the crystal to be the same as separation of layers of vanadium atoms found by x-ray diffraction. Use section 1 of the data booklet.

Calculate the average mass, in g, of a vanadium atom by using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Determine the volume, in cm³, of a vanadium unit cell.

Determine the density, in g cm⁻³, of vanadium by using your answers to (a)(i), (a)(iii) and (a)(iv).

Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell of gold, showing your working.

The edge length of the gold unit cell is 4.08 × 10^‒8 cm.

Determine the density of gold in g cm^‒3, using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell of gold, showing your working.

The edge length of the gold unit cell is 4.08 × 10^‒8 cm.

Determine the density of gold in g cm^‒3, using sections 2 and 6 of the data booklet.

Identify the type of intermolecular bonding that is responsible for Kevlar^®’s strength.

Draw the structure of the monomer from which nylon-6 is produced by a condensation reaction.

Distinguish between the manufacture of polyester and polyethene.

Repeating units of several polymers are listed.

The infrared (IR) spectrum of one of these polymers is shown.

Deduce, giving a reason, the name of this polymer and its Resin Identification Code (RIC), using sections 26 and 30 in the data booklet.

Classify polybutadiene as either an addition or condensation polymer, giving a reason.

State one factor considered when making green chemistry polymers.

Outline, giving a reason, how addition and condensation polymerization compare with regard to green chemistry.

Draw the full structural formula of the organic functional group formed during the polymerization of the two reactants below.

Draw the structure of the monomers of Kevlar^® if the by-product of the condensation polymerization is hydrogen chloride.

Classify polybutadiene as either an addition or condensation polymer, giving a reason.

State one factor considered when making green chemistry polymers.

Classify polybutadiene as either an addition or condensation polymer, giving a reason.

State one factor considered when making green chemistry polymers.

Outline, giving a reason, how addition and condensation polymerization compare with regard to green chemistry.

Draw the full structural formula of the organic functional group formed during the polymerization of the two reactants below.

Outline, giving a reason, how addition and condensation polymerization compare with regard to green chemistry.

Draw the full structural formula of the organic functional group formed during the polymerization of the two reactants below.

Draw the structure of the monomers of Kevlar^® if the by-product of the condensation polymerization is hydrogen chloride.

Draw the structure of the monomers of Kevlar^® if the by-product of the condensation polymerization is hydrogen chloride.

Identify the type of intermolecular bonding that is responsible for Kevlar^®’s strength.

Identify the type of intermolecular bonding that is responsible for Kevlar^®’s strength.

Draw the structure of the monomer from which nylon-6 is produced by a condensation reaction.

Draw the structure of the monomer from which nylon-6 is produced by a condensation reaction.

Distinguish between the manufacture of polyester and polyethene.

Distinguish between the manufacture of polyester and polyethene.

Repeating units of several polymers are listed.

The infrared (IR) spectrum of one of these polymers is shown.

Deduce, giving a reason, the name of this polymer and its Resin Identification Code (RIC), using sections 26 and 30 in the data booklet.

Repeating units of several polymers are listed.

The infrared (IR) spectrum of one of these polymers is shown.

Deduce, giving a reason, the name of this polymer and its Resin Identification Code (RIC), using sections 26 and 30 in the data booklet.

The solubility product, K_sp , of cadmium sulfide, CdS, is 8.0 × 10^–27. Determine the concentration of cadmium ions in 1.0 dm³ of a saturated solution of cadmium sulfide to which 0.10 mol of solid sodium sulfide has been added, stating any assumption you make.

The concentration of aluminium in drinking water can be reduced by precipitating aluminium hydroxide. Calculate the maximum concentration of aluminium ions in water of pH 7 at 298 K. Solubility product of aluminium hydroxide = 3.3 × 10⁻³⁴ at 298 K.

Vanadium and other transition metals can interfere with cell metabolism.

State and explain one process, other than by creating free radicals, by which transition metals interfere with cell metabolism.

Vanadium(IV) ions can create free radicals by a Fenton reaction.

Deduce the equation for the reaction of V⁴⁺ with hydrogen peroxide.

Lead ions are toxic and can be precipitated using hydroxide ions.

Pb²⁺ (aq) + 2OH^‒ (aq) $\rightleftharpoons$ Pb(OH)₂ (s)

Sufficient sodium hydroxide solid is added to the antacid sample to produce a 1.0 × 10^‒2 mol dm^‒3 hydroxide ion solution at 298 K.

Deduce if a precipitate will be formed, using section 32 of the data booklet.

If you did not calculate the concentration of lead ions in (b)(i), use the value of 2.4 × 10⁻⁴ mol dm^‒3, but this is not the correct value.

An aqueous lead(II) ion reacts with three ethane-1,2-diamine molecules to form an octahedral chelate ion.

Outline why the chelate ion is more stable than the reactants.

Explain how entropy affects this equilibrium.

State the number of coordinate covalent bonds EDTA forms with Ni²⁺.

Outline why heavy metals are toxic.

Determine the maximum concentration of lead(II) ions at 298 K in a solution in which the concentration of carbonate ions is maintained at 1.10 × 10⁻⁴ mol dm⁻³. Use section 32 of the data booklet.

State a method, other than precipitation, of removing heavy metal ions from solution.

1.40 × 10⁻³ g of NaOH (s) are dissolved in 250.0 cm³ of 1.00 × 10⁻¹¹ mol dm⁻³ Pb(OH)₂ (aq) solution.

Determine the change in lead ion concentration in the solution, using section 32 of the data booklet.

Precipitation is one method used to treat waste water.

Phosphates, ${\mathrm{PO}}_4^{3-}$, in waste water can be removed by precipitation with magnesium ions. $K_{sp}$ of magnesium phosphate is $1.04\times {10}^{-24}$.

$3{\mathrm{Mg}}^{2+}\left(\mathrm{aq}\right)+2{{\mathrm{PO}}_4}^{3-}\left(\mathrm{aq}\right)\to {\mathrm{Mg}}_3\left({\mathrm{PO}}_4{)}_2\right(\mathrm{s})$

Calculate the maximum solubility of phosphate ions in a solution containing $0.0100 \mathrm{mol} {\mathrm{dm}}^{-3}$ magnesium ions.

Precipitation is one method used to treat waste water.

Zinc, cadmium, nickel, and lead are metal ions which can be removed by precipitation. Explain why waste water is adjusted to a pH of 9−10 to remove these ions by referring to section 32 of the data booklet.

Explain how entropy affects this equilibrium.

State the number of coordinate covalent bonds EDTA forms with Ni²⁺.

Explain how entropy affects this equilibrium.

State the number of coordinate covalent bonds EDTA forms with Ni²⁺.

Outline why heavy metals are toxic.

Determine the maximum concentration of lead(II) ions at 298 K in a solution in which the concentration of carbonate ions is maintained at 1.10 × 10⁻⁴ mol dm⁻³. Use section 32 of the data booklet.

State a method, other than precipitation, of removing heavy metal ions from solution.

Outline why heavy metals are toxic.

Determine the maximum concentration of lead(II) ions at 298 K in a solution in which the concentration of carbonate ions is maintained at 1.10 × 10⁻⁴ mol dm⁻³. Use section 32 of the data booklet.

State a method, other than precipitation, of removing heavy metal ions from solution.

1.40 × 10⁻³ g of NaOH (s) are dissolved in 250.0 cm³ of 1.00 × 10⁻¹¹ mol dm⁻³ Pb(OH)₂ (aq) solution.

Determine the change in lead ion concentration in the solution, using section 32 of the data booklet.

Precipitation is one method used to treat waste water.

Phosphates, ${\mathrm{PO}}_4^{3-}$, in waste water can be removed by precipitation with magnesium ions. $K_{sp}$ of magnesium phosphate is $1.04\times {10}^{-24}$.

$3{\mathrm{Mg}}^{2+}\left(\mathrm{aq}\right)+2{{\mathrm{PO}}_4}^{3-}\left(\mathrm{aq}\right)\to {\mathrm{Mg}}_3\left({\mathrm{PO}}_4{)}_2\right(\mathrm{s})$

Calculate the maximum solubility of phosphate ions in a solution containing $0.0100 \mathrm{mol} {\mathrm{dm}}^{-3}$ magnesium ions.

Precipitation is one method used to treat waste water.

Zinc, cadmium, nickel, and lead are metal ions which can be removed by precipitation. Explain why waste water is adjusted to a pH of 9−10 to remove these ions by referring to section 32 of the data booklet.

Precipitation is one method used to treat waste water.

Phosphates, ${\mathrm{PO}}_4^{3-}$, in waste water can be removed by precipitation with magnesium ions. $K_{sp}$ of magnesium phosphate is $1.04\times {10}^{-24}$.

$3{\mathrm{Mg}}^{2+}\left(\mathrm{aq}\right)+2{{\mathrm{PO}}_4}^{3-}\left(\mathrm{aq}\right)\to {\mathrm{Mg}}_3\left({\mathrm{PO}}_4{)}_2\right(\mathrm{s})$

Calculate the maximum solubility of phosphate ions in a solution containing $0.0100 \mathrm{mol} {\mathrm{dm}}^{-3}$ magnesium ions.

Precipitation is one method used to treat waste water.

Zinc, cadmium, nickel, and lead are metal ions which can be removed by precipitation. Explain why waste water is adjusted to a pH of 9−10 to remove these ions by referring to section 32 of the data booklet.

The solubility product, K_sp , of cadmium sulfide, CdS, is 8.0 × 10^–27. Determine the concentration of cadmium ions in 1.0 dm³ of a saturated solution of cadmium sulfide to which 0.10 mol of solid sodium sulfide has been added, stating any assumption you make.

The solubility product, K_sp , of cadmium sulfide, CdS, is 8.0 × 10^–27. Determine the concentration of cadmium ions in 1.0 dm³ of a saturated solution of cadmium sulfide to which 0.10 mol of solid sodium sulfide has been added, stating any assumption you make.

The concentration of aluminium in drinking water can be reduced by precipitating aluminium hydroxide. Calculate the maximum concentration of aluminium ions in water of pH 7 at 298 K. Solubility product of aluminium hydroxide = 3.3 × 10⁻³⁴ at 298 K.

The concentration of aluminium in drinking water can be reduced by precipitating aluminium hydroxide. Calculate the maximum concentration of aluminium ions in water of pH 7 at 298 K. Solubility product of aluminium hydroxide = 3.3 × 10⁻³⁴ at 298 K.

Vanadium and other transition metals can interfere with cell metabolism.

State and explain one process, other than by creating free radicals, by which transition metals interfere with cell metabolism.

Vanadium(IV) ions can create free radicals by a Fenton reaction.

Deduce the equation for the reaction of V⁴⁺ with hydrogen peroxide.

Vanadium and other transition metals can interfere with cell metabolism.

State and explain one process, other than by creating free radicals, by which transition metals interfere with cell metabolism.

Vanadium(IV) ions can create free radicals by a Fenton reaction.

Deduce the equation for the reaction of V⁴⁺ with hydrogen peroxide.

Lead ions are toxic and can be precipitated using hydroxide ions.

Pb²⁺ (aq) + 2OH^‒ (aq) $\rightleftharpoons$ Pb(OH)₂ (s)

Sufficient sodium hydroxide solid is added to the antacid sample to produce a 1.0 × 10^‒2 mol dm^‒3 hydroxide ion solution at 298 K.

Deduce if a precipitate will be formed, using section 32 of the data booklet.

If you did not calculate the concentration of lead ions in (b)(i), use the value of 2.4 × 10⁻⁴ mol dm^‒3, but this is not the correct value.

An aqueous lead(II) ion reacts with three ethane-1,2-diamine molecules to form an octahedral chelate ion.

Outline why the chelate ion is more stable than the reactants.

Lead ions are toxic and can be precipitated using hydroxide ions.

Pb²⁺ (aq) + 2OH^‒ (aq) $\rightleftharpoons$ Pb(OH)₂ (s)

Sufficient sodium hydroxide solid is added to the antacid sample to produce a 1.0 × 10^‒2 mol dm^‒3 hydroxide ion solution at 298 K.

Deduce if a precipitate will be formed, using section 32 of the data booklet.

If you did not calculate the concentration of lead ions in (b)(i), use the value of 2.4 × 10⁻⁴ mol dm^‒3, but this is not the correct value.

An aqueous lead(II) ion reacts with three ethane-1,2-diamine molecules to form an octahedral chelate ion.

Outline why the chelate ion is more stable than the reactants.